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About halfway into my training career, I came across the strange world (at least to me) of competitive swimming. For someone whose experience at the time revolved around the violent realms of football and wrestling, trying to understand the swimming world was literally and figuratively like learning a new language. Phrases like 59 high, 22 low, stroke pace, kick set, back half, fly day, and taper flew over my head like a street sign in a hurricane. I quickly knew I had to learn what this all meant if I was going to help these unique athletes flourish in the pool.

Within my first few seasons working with a high school team, we achieved some pretty good results individually and as a team, boasting top 5 finishes and one Illinois State Championship while breaking school records along the way. This is great, I thought. I didn’t stray too far from the nuts and bolts of conventional weight room work, so I figured, if it isn’t broken, don’t fix it.

That is, until things did indeed break.

After the state championship year, the team hit a bit of a lull for a couple of seasons. We weren’t as fast and had a few mystery illnesses and injuries pop up at the most inopportune times. Even though the guys really enjoyed the training and the atmosphere we brought, things weren’t going the way we needed them to go to keep the needle moving forward. Yes, we lost some talent, but the pride of our program is in the Reload vs. Rebuild approach—except, we were reloading in a musket-like fashion rather than the machine gun pace we enjoyed in seasons past.

The pride of our program is in the Reload vs. Rebuild approach—except, we were reloading in a musket-like fashion rather than the machine gun pace we enjoyed in seasons past. Share on X

Things I initially thought to myself:

• Do they just not get it?
• What is wrong with them?
• What should I have asked myself?
• Are they recovered enough?
• Are they trained enough?
• What can I change in their training?

It was time for some humility and to learn from our coaches and swimmers. For the next several seasons (and even now), I delved deep into the murky waters of the swimming world (pun absolutely intended)!

Talking the Talk

The first order of business was learning their vernacular. I came to understand the above-mentioned references over the course of the next few seasons. Before, during, and after our lifts, I regularly asked the swimmers what happened in practice. They would have to dumb down the swim lingo for me, but l gradually learned what the aim of their practice sets meant. Most every set was based off a pace, interval, and density (volume done in a certain time).

These practice elements were not as foreign as previously thought, as I could now relate weight room work to help drive training qualities in certain training phases with respect to time and exercise pace. There was a need for certain exercises to be explosive, powerful, rhythmic, or a combination of these and sustain the ability to repeat these outputs. Applying their vernacular (blocks, turns, stroke pace) to their weight room sets cemented the intent of our lifts.

Second, regular conversations with the swimmers and coaching staff painted a better picture of what practice looked like from both perspectives. I learned to plan the weight room movements, volumes, and intensities accordingly to consolidate stressors and appease the coaches.

Applying the swimmer’s vernacular (blocks, turns, stroke pace) to their weight room sets cemented the intent of our lifts. Share on X

The way I see it, even though the architects can have the best-laid plans, the building will turn out to be severely flawed if those plans don’t make practical sense to the builders. For example, I found out the hard way that deadlifts or cleans after “fly day” (butterfly specialty sets) make it a bad day; there is no sense in beating the dead horse of the hinge pattern when the spine has been in repeat hyperextension for an entire practice. We simply switched this to our main leg day and vertical pull session to restore length.

I also decided to cut out barbell work during these seasons on the third workout. A few reasons for this:

• This day was usually after our second lift day and the day of a morning practice—our recovery wasn’t optimal, to say the least.
• This third day was also less than two days before a weekend invite—the team just wasn’t there mentally to grind through another lift.

I ended up going the way of body weight, medicine ball, and band work in Tabata fashion to keep the intensity and pace high in brief bouts: a 24-minute workout in total, followed by recovery work. If anything, this kept the overall volume at the minimum, given that two of the three lift sessions are their third session of the day. Yup, we lift after two swim practices each week. This aspect of their season still amazes me, as to this day, I do not know any other high school sport that practices twice a day DURING the season.

After looking at things from the bigger picture, understanding training phases in a short season (three months) was relatively simple. Given the post-season structure, our program follows a binary model of training phases (periodization, if you will), explained simply as, “It’s a grind until the taper.” Culturally masochistic? Maybe. But an invaluable insight into the mentality of coaches and athletes—the task becomes appeasing the coaches’ wishes without killing these kids.

If there was one significant shift in my approach to training swimmers, it was using time as a factor for work, rest, and when and how to train certain biomotor qualities. Share on X

Lastly, understanding time for a swimmer is like knowing where their Holy Grail is. Time is of the essence! Every bit of a practice set is written off of timed interval models in an attempt to tolerate outputs for distance splits and chop as much time during the qualifying meets as possible. If there was one significant shift in my approach to training swimmers, it was using time as a factor for work, rest, and when and how to train certain biomotor qualities. Using time and intervals resonates with swimmers because it is a language they already speak…so why not speak it in the weight room?

Rebranding the Taper

As seasons passed, my deeper understanding of time helped refine our training process for both the grind phase and the taper phase. Within the grind and taper model, we must understand that what goes up must come down—you cannot grind in perpetuity. For us, the grind phase is simple: two broken circuits revolving around a core lift, explosive drill, and exercises for the trunk and shoulder dexterity are consistent orders of the day. We work through about nine weeks of this, gradually reducing the rest interval but keeping the volume the same, seeking density of work over this period.

The taper is where things get a little interesting. For strength coaches who have worked with swimmers, we all know the nuanced changes in mindset this time of the season brings. For most, it’s like the last week of school before the summer break (read: they’ve officially checked out and want nothing to do with early mornings, a pool, or a weight room), which is not exactly ideal if we’re trying to stay sharp.

For others, it’s like a kid during Christmastime: they hope they were “good enough” all year long and will receive all the presents they worked for on the big day. The operative word is hope. As soon as I hear a swimmer say hope, it worries me a bit, as I am fully aware of the pending anxiety that results from that paradigm, which is amplified if hands are idle. The last thing these “worriers” need is to empty their time and gain dead space where doubt can creep in and wreak havoc on their confidence. The psychology of the taper is as significant as the physiology.

In the pool, practice volume is reduced as morning practices are eliminated, quality sets replace the volume, and the practice of starts and timing relay exchanges ensures the pertinent parts of each race are in good working form. The synergistic effect of normal sleep patterns, stress reduction (to the energy systems), and precise practice drives a restorative effect. My question was: How can we replicate this approach in the weight room to amplify the effects of the taper and nullify the potential psychological drawbacks?

The answer? We don’t taper; we prime!

In the mundane world of swimming, where staring at the black line several hours of the day creates stir-crazy athletes, finding purpose in the most arbitrary ways is sometimes what it takes to keep the “squirrels” at bay. For us, it has meant redefining Taper Time into Prime Time!

In the mundane world of swimming, where staring at the black line several hours of the day creates stir-crazy athletes, finding purpose in the most arbitrary ways can be a necessity. Share on X

The definition of priming is the act of making something ready: preparation in advance of some act, purpose, or performance. I feel this definition commands positive pro-action, where the finishing touch is in the hands of the athlete.

Video 1. Jumps, kicks, throws, slams, and other exercises in the “priming” phase.

Physiologically, we do strip the program down, but we do not take away what got us there. In congruence with the theme of this training period, we eliminate the “grind” from our core lift repertoire, opting for higher-speed counterparts like high pulls and loaded jumps for 3–5 reps (to keep our starts and walls sharp). We use oscillatory work and med ball throws for the upper and lower body that replicate split times for each swimmer.¹ The movements here are specific in terms of duration and output but can also mimic the action and rhythm of the strokes, given that you have the tools at hand.

The benefits of this are twofold, as the combination of lighter loads and higher speeds (for time) allow the CNS to recover and recalibrate to familiarize the athlete with event outputs as much as possible. The combination here is simple; we do the following:

• One upper body med ball throw or extensive plyo for time, 15–40 seconds.
• One horizontal or vertical jump exercise for starts and walls.
• An oscillatory exercise for the kick.²

Beginning three weeks from the championship meet, we have two training blocks per day with one exercise for upper, lower, and explosive, ramping down the sets from three, two, and one each week until the meet.

Psychologically, priming works much the same. “Priming is a technique used in cognitive psychology that conditions responses through exposure to specific stimuli. It works with our unconscious responses to change our thought patterns and reactions by tapping into the way our brains process, store, and recall information. Priming is known to improve cognitive and behavioral response times.”³

This sounds like the exact thing we are trying to do as we enter championship performances. Stripping the work to the necessities in such a way that it resonates with the athlete (movements for time) is the key to merging the physical with the mental while staving off the doubt monsters lurking in the shadows of idle times.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References and Further Reading

1. Triphasic Training: A Systematic Approach to Elite Speed & Explosive Strength Performance. Dietz & Peterson. Dietz Sports Enterprise, 2012. p. 310–313.

“Because the loading of the movement is light, the high power stimulus must come from maintaining as high velocity (eccentrically and concentrically) throughout the entire duration of the set. Actively pushing the bar against gravity and intentionally pulling the bar during the eccentric.” ~Pulling with gravity increases the virtual force during the amortization phase.~

“Sets are done for time, loads are kept static, progress is measured by performing more work within the allotted time.”

Table 6.1 Under 55% loading parameters

Swim 50-200-25s,17s,32s

Swim >200-32s,25s,40s

End Swim- 40s,32s,47s

2. Triphasic Peaking Methods 1, 2, and 3 for advanced results for all levels of athletes.
Triphasic Peaking Method 1.
Peaking Method 2.
Peaking Method 3.

3. What Is Priming Psychology And What Is It Used For?

Updated September 30, 2022, by Betterhelp.com Editorial Team

“Priming is a technique used in cognitive psychology that conditions responses through exposure to specific stimuli. It works with our unconscious responses to change our thought patterns and reactions by tapping into the way our brains process, store, and recall information. Priming is known to improve cognitive and behavioral response times.”

“Priming is widely used by psychologists as therapy to treat patients with stress, anxiety and depression. Positive priming creates positive responses and emotions in patients and can significantly help to manage mood disorders. However, priming is also used in various other aspects of life apart from mental health care.”

Athlete readiness is a popular topic: can we use tests to collect data to gain insight into an athlete’s physical state, ultimately helping make decisions and modifications (if any) about the training later that day? The thought is that these modifications will help maximize what the athlete is truly ready to handle that day, whether it be doing more, doing less, or simply providing reassurance to stay the course.

These optimized days then add up over the course of a training microcycle, mesocycle, and macrocycle to produce even better results. But what test is simple, repeatable, and engaging for athletes to perform and trackable consistently over time? The vertical jump.

Here’s the logical framework connecting sprint readiness to jump readiness:

1. Ninety-five percent of an athlete’s best sprint is fast enough to cause speed gains.
2. How often do athletes hit 95%, and are they ready for a high-intensity speed training session? Around 13% of the time, they are UNDER 95%.
3. What is a similar threshold for vertical jumping?

Coming from famous speed coach Charlie Francis and endorsed by many others, we know that 95% of an athlete’s best sprint time or faster is a high enough intensity to cause speed gains.

Anecdotally, 95% is a good threshold that lines up with an athlete’s readiness to train that day…to perform high-intensity speed training. But how does 95% line up for vertical jumping? Share on X

Anecdotally, 95% is a good threshold that lines up with an athlete’s readiness to train that day—the data I’ve collected shows that my athletes are only under that number around 13% of the time. This means, on average, in almost nine of every ten speed sessions, my athletes are ready to perform high-intensity speed training. But how does 95% line up for vertical jumping? Should that number be higher or lower? How often are athletes below it?

Athletes and Data Collection

From the data I collected at TCBoost Sports Performance, I used measurements from 42 athletes (33 males and nine females; 37 high school athletes and five college athletes). The criteria to be included in the vertical jump analysis was at least 10 vertical jumps. The criteria to be included in the combination jump and sprint analysis was at least 10 sprint times, and of those 10 times having at least five days of both a vertical jump and a sprint time (fly 10 or 5–15 acceleration). Thirty-four athletes had at least five days of both a vertical jump and fly 10, 30 athletes had at least five days of both a vertical jump and 5–15, and six athletes had at least five days that included a vertical jump, fly 10, and 5–15.

In total, from the 42 athletes, there were 868 daily vertical jumps used for analysis. Of those jumps, 826 were assigned a percentage of that athlete’s best (as everyone’s first daily jump can’t be compared to their best).

Of the 34 athletes who had at least five fly 10 times on the same day as a vertical jump, 519 fly 10s were used for analysis. Four-hundred eighty-five of those sprints were assigned a percentage of that athlete’s best. Of the 30 athletes who had at least five 5–15 times on the same day as a vertical jump, 483 5–15s were used for analysis. Four-hundred fifty-three of those sprints were assigned a percentage of that athlete’s best.

Jump and Sprint Analysis

Since the premise of this article and analysis is what we know about Charlie Francis’s 95% threshold and my previous data, we need to compare the sprints and jumps. The first thing to note is the larger variability between daily jumps and sprints. Vertical jumps were much more inconsistent, with the average of an athlete’s best to worst jump varying by 16.6%, while the fly 10s and 5–15s only varied by 9.0% and 7.1%, respectively.

Note the larger variability between daily jumps and sprints. Vertical jumps were much more inconsistent, says @CoachBigToe. Share on X

A few speculations as to why this could be:

• Jumps were performed at the end of the warm-up, so the athlete might not have been truly warmed up.
• There is a technical component to landing with a flat foot as opposed to toes first that affects the reading on a jump mat.
• “Newbie gains” might be easier to attain in jumping than in sprinting.

Regardless of the plausible explanations, this means there might need to be more flexibility or a larger range when determining a sufficient range for daily vertical jumps.

Next, the average daily percentage for vertical jumps (96.8%) was lower than that of sprinting (97.9% for both fly 10 and 5–15). This could be due to the factors mentioned above and just overall greater variability in vertical jumps.

Now that we know jumping is more variable and measures at a relatively lower percentage of an athlete’s best on a daily basis, how does the 95% threshold look as a gauge of readiness? From previous data, athletes sprint under 95% of their best around 13% of the time. However, it is important to note that middle school athletes were discussed in that article, and this data set was for high school and college athletes.

Clearly, 95% for daily vertical jumps is too high of a percentage, as athletes were under that almost 30% of the time. For a threshold that yields the athletes being under it closer to 10% of the time for both sprint tests, as shown below, it appears 92.5% is a suitable mark for vertical jumps. Athletes only jumped under 92.5% of their best 11.7% of the time.

Lastly, it is important to determine whether these measures were related. Can we make decisions solely based on jump data if it’s very related to and predictive of sprint performance? Believe it or not, when athletes had both a vertical jump and sprint time on the same day with a calculated percentage of their best, they were not correlated. There was no correlation between the daily jump percentage and daily fly 10 percentage (0.190), daily jump percentage and daily 5–15 percentage (0.144), or daily fly 10 percentage and daily 5–15 percentage (0.354).

Believe it or not, when athletes had both a vertical jump and sprint time on the same day with a calculated percentage of their best, they were not correlated, says @CoachBigToe. Share on X

This makes sense, as although they are both explosive athletic movements, they are different skills and movement patterns. Since sprinting and becoming faster is the foundation of speed and power training, daily sprint percentage will be the primary indicator of an athlete’s readiness and consequent decision-making (if any). However, because jumps and sprints are not correlated, jump readiness can be used as a quick snapshot to create context and open up a conversation with an athlete about how they’re feeling.

Limitations

Here is my commentary on why vertical jumps may be more variable than sprints, why vertical jumps were not correlated to sprint times, and the overall limitations of this data:

Technology. This data spans two different jump mats and two different timing laser systems. The MyJump Just Jump Mat was used from October 2020 to February 2022, and the Swift EZE Jump Mat was used from February 2022 to November 2022. VALD SmartSpeed lasers were used for most of this data collection, with Swift lasers being mixed in intermittently.

• Because jump mats measure jump height by flight time, athletes can improve their scores simply by learning how to perform the jump more proficiently (with the whole foot touching the ground on the landing, as opposed to landing on the toes first). This could be reflected as “newbie gains,” but really, it is learning how NOT to do the test incorrectly.

Focus. Part of the reason vertical jumps are in the discussion for a plausible daily readiness measure is the simplicity of the test. Consequently, it may be easier for athletes to complete a vertical jump haphazardly when compared to a timed sprint.

Placement in the workout. An overwhelming majority of this jump data was collected at the end of the warm-up before the main workout of the day. Consequently, the athletes might not have been completely warmed up by the time the jumps were measured. On the flip side, athletes were much more likely to have truly been ready to sprint at 100% after a warm-up, jumping, and sprint drills. However, to gather the most reliable data, you should always collect jumps at the same place within the workout. Each option of jump placement will have its pros and cons; just be sure to keep it consistent when tracking over time.

Data in database. There could be a gap in the data based on whether it was entered into the database or not. Between myself and the four other coaches at my current facility, I cannot assume every sprint and jump was entered for every athlete over this two-year span. The athletes and groups that I coach had more data entered. For example, if I coached a group of athletes on Mondays when we mainly do 5–15s, and another coach had that same group on Wednesdays when we mostly do fly 10s, there could be a gap in the fly 10 data.

Training goals. Although we train our groups concurrently, private athletes have different and specific training goals. Data analysis included both group and private athletes. For example, sprint percentages over time could look much different when comparing a group of athletes who focus on sprint development to a private volleyball player who mainly focuses on jump development.

Population. This data did not include middle school athletes. Middle school athletes are much more inconsistent and jump much lower, which leads to huge relative variations in daily jumps. The 21 middle school athletes who met the vertical jump criteria varied by 18.8% ± 8.3%, which is much more variable than the high school/college athletes’ 16.6% ± 4.6%. However, this was also reflected in the decreased time under 95% for the sprint times of 10.9% and 7.7% compared to the previous article’s 13.0%.

Looking at 92.5% for Vertical Jumps

A daily vertical jump measure of readiness makes sense in most populations due to the test’s simplicity, feasibility, and practicality. With what we know about daily sprint times and comparing it to an athlete’s previous best relative to the Charlie Francis 95% threshold, 92.5% for vertical jumps may be a more realistic threshold. This is NOT to say that jumping 92.5% is a good jumping stimulus and will consequently lead to jumping improvement (which is the foundation of the 95% sprint threshold). This IS to say that if we use 95% for sprinting as an insight into how the athlete is feeling that day and their readiness to do high-intensity training for sprinting and power development, then 92.5% is similar for jumping.

If we use 95% for sprinting as an insight into how the athlete feels that day and their readiness to do high-intensity training for sprinting & power development, then 92.5% is similar for jumping. Share on X

This lower threshold makes sense, as there is a greater percentage of variation for vertical jumps on a daily basis when compared to sprinting. However, we also know that jump and sprint percentages are not related and, consequently, cannot be used in place of one another. Each readiness test will serve different purposes for you as a professional. Because sprints are more physically demanding to perform, more consistent of a measure, and the most specific test, let them be the main indicator of readiness and consequent decision-making.

The vertical jump is a simple exercise that can be used to start the conversation about daily readiness. This is not to say that as soon as the athlete jumps under 92.5%, you should abandon the plan for that day; it just means to investigate further and come to a consensus plan to help maximize the training that day for the athlete.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Loaded carries are a low entry, high reward exercise that can develop strength in the trunk, grip, and upper body, along with being a great means to develop conditioning without punishing the joints.

When programming carries for the tactical population, they hold an even greater importance. Programming for athletes is far easier in comparison to those in the tactical field—athletes have specific seasons of play, and for the most part, you have a solid idea of what their sport requires.

For tactical athletes, every day is gameday, and it is impossible to program around their schedule and meet their specific required work tasks. Whether it be carrying ladders, dragging people, or even wrestling down a perpetrator, they have to be prepared for everything and anything. Yes, some things are fairly common or routine enough to be considered “day to day,” but you cannot replicate the additional potential stressors or dangers that are associated with their duties.

For tactical athletes, every day is gameday, and it is impossible to program around their schedule and meet their specific required work tasks. Share on X

Using carries as an exercise helps develop a strong base of general physical preparation (gpp), and even though many tactical athletes will carry things in the field—odd objects, people, their loads, etc.—I still focus and train carries as a gpp-based exercise, not overcomplicating the task.

My job is to aid tactical athletes in physical preparation to better handle the stressors of their jobs, not necessarily to replicate the field. If it looks similar to what may occur in the field and that helps initiate some buy in, then that is just a positive coincidence. Additionally, many agencies have their own work performance tests or physical abilities test, which will include specific tasks and carries.

How to Implement Carries

Carries are a versatile exercise that can be performed with several different pieces of training equipment, through various methods, and with different training adaptations in mind.

When progressing carries, there are four variables to consider:

• Load
• Distance
• Time
• Speed

Manipulating these four variables can help amplify a training session and can be used to develop and challenge athletes over time. Carries can be utilized in the warm-up, as the primary training exercise of the day, or as a conditioning option.

Carries can be utilized in the warm-up, as the primary training exercise of the day, or as a conditioning option. Share on X

Warm-ups with carries are great to emphasize trunk and shoulder stability. Single arm carry options such as suitcase carries, kettlebell bottoms up carries, and others can create high amounts of muscular activation with little load required.

Video 1. Warmup Carries

Selecting a carry exercise as the primary exercise of the session is a beneficial option when working with the tactical population. Exercises such as heavy farmers’ carries or front-loaded options are brutal and will force total body tension. These movements can also be progressed easily by increasing the load over time, the distance covered, or even the speed of performance.

Programming carries as a means of conditioning is great for the tactical athlete. Maintaining the ability to carry or move loads can be paramount in the field. Mixing carries into conditioning protocols doesn’t have to be complicated either. Modify protocols such as AMRAPs or EMOMs by replacing exercises with carrying-based movements. A second option is to simply perform the carries for a set time, one minute plus for example. Simple, yet tough.

Carry Exercises

D Ball / Odd Objects

The D Ball or any odd object implantation are great tools to use for carries. Each offer their own unique difficulties when performing exercises and are more chaotic than the standard dumbbell or kettlebells. Some odd objects, for example, would be sandbags, kegs, and atlas stones.

Exercises that can be performed with these include:

Shoulder Carry

Carrying the implement on just one side of the body will force a need for the opposite side to brace and remain solid. This carry will typically allow the most weight to be used.

Offset Carry

Adding to the shoulder carry, you will carry an implement by the side in suitcase position. Later in the article, we’ll go into more depth on the offset carries and their benefits when using carries in a training program.

Bear Hug

Squeezing the implement tight to the body works to develop strength in the upper back, mid-section, and the grip. To successfully perform the movement, total body tension will be required.

Video 2. D Ball Carries

Kettlebell / Dumbbells

Outside of the odd object implementation, using kettlebells or dumbbells can be more than enough to train multiple carry options.

Outside of the odd object implementation, using kettlebells or dumbbells can be more than enough to train multiple carry options. Share on X

Some exercises that can be performed with these include:

Front Rack Carry

The front rack carry can be performed with one or two kettlebells and requires proper posture throughout the movement. This carry is great to strengthen the entire back, shoulders, and trunk.

Video 3. Front Rack Carry

Overhead Carry

Similar to the front rack position, overhead carries can be performed with one or two implements and puts even more stress across the trunk, since the load is farther away from your center of mass, and are also great for shoulder health and stability.

Video 4. Overhead Carry

Offset Carries

Offset carries refer to loading just one side of the body differently from the other. This can be done by switching up the carrying position on one side of the body or just grabbing a heavier kettlebell in one hand in comparison to the other. Offset carries are great to add some variety and challenge in your programming.

Video 5. Offset Carries

Additional Movements

Once carries have been established in a program there are additional obstacles or series that can be utilized in training. Using carries in multidirectional movements (such as forward and backward shuttles, figure 8’s, or in conjunction with sled training) can all be viable answers.

Once carries have been established in a program there are additional obstacles or series that can be utilized in training. Share on X

Shuttles

Shuttles can be utilized to make small spaces feel much larger as well as offer a different proprioceptive perception, as walking backwards with a load can surprisingly be much more difficult than expected.

An example shuttle could be 20-10-5 yards: walk forward and back 20 yards, then 10 yards, and finish with a quick 5 yards forward and back. Different carry positions can be mixed in throughout the shuttles. There are really no limitations on what you may see fit for your population.

Video 6. Shuttles

Figure 8’s

From the archives of Joe Defranco’s special strength exercises. Figure 8 carries change up the direction by walking in a looping figure 8. Incorporating tight turns and quick redirections require more control and bracing throughout the carry.

Video 7. Figure 8

Carry and Drags

Using carries with sled movements is another underutilized way to challenge conditioning and broaden the base of physical preparation for tactical athletes. Whether it be forward, backward, or cross over drags, adding a single or double arm carry will change the exercise altogether.

Using carries with sled movements is another underutilized way to challenge conditioning and broaden the base of physical preparation for tactical athletes. Share on X

With beginners, I would recommend dragging the sled with the anchor around the waist before using a single strap as shown in the video.

Video 8. Sled & Carries

Wrap-Up

Carries are one of the best bang-for-your-buck exercises that can be used for tactical practitioners. Compared to other exercises, they require little skill acquisition and can be used several different ways in a training program.

Using the information throughout this article and exercise list can provide additional ways to utilize carries with tactical athletes. Progressing the exercises in a training program is key and will continue to keep them fresh and beneficial.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Push-ups are an OG. A face card in the deck of (useful) exercises. In fact, they may be the only movement left unscathed by the myopic mission of boxing up exercises as “right” or “wrong,” better or worse.

Push-ups are old school, cool, beneficial, hard, and perhaps more technical than many people realize. They require dynamic stability and global coordination literally from head to toe, and you’re relying on a relatively small joint (the elbow) to bend and lower the body to the floor and back up again. And while they may be fillers—or “vanilla” for some populations—belonging to the body weight category doesn’t relegate them to the “dummy-proof” column or provide a simple check for “upper body push” if athletes can’t perform them correctly.

Although the title and content of this article focus on push-up development specifically for females, there are parts applicable to everyone. Being male does not provide an automatic proficiency pass for push-ups or exclude athletes from thorough coaching, just as being female does not call for belittling or misogynistic modifications. Every athlete deserves thorough and attentive training and coaching—but programming the same blanket training for males and females overlooks major developmental differences and does both a disservice.

Programming the same blanket training for males and females overlooks major developmental differences and does both a disservice, says @rachelkh2. Share on X

To provide the best possible training, one should be knowledgeable and respectful of differences regarding ability and long-term progress. This piece is not intended to examine comparisons between males and females but, rather, to discuss some reasons why training should vary and how to approach those differences.

My purpose is to:

1. Provoke more thought and attention when it comes to prescribing push-ups for all athletes.
2. Discuss two critical developmental changes that affect the physical performance of females during and after puberty and how these changes can impact upper body strength development.
3. Provide insights and progressions that have worked for my athletes.

Developmental Considerations

Puberty is a complex, dynamic process, to say the least. There are significant hormonal, anthropometrical, and neuromuscular changes (among others) that can impact physical performance. For those in a position to govern physical activity or prescribe training to adolescents, it’s vital to understand these comprehensive changes. Typically, girls begin puberty and experience changes earlier than boys, ranging in age from 9–11 years old^1–3, but the timing and rate of puberty can and does vary widely amongst individuals.

Although numerous changes occur during the adolescent period, there are two in conjunction that, in my opinion, are the most significant when it comes to the development of relative upper body strength and primarily impact adolescent athletes.

1. Peak Height Velocity

In both females and males, there is a time of peak height velocity (PHV)—also called the adolescent growth spurt—which coincides with the onset of puberty.³ During PHV, the long bones of the body, including the femur and tibia, undergo rapid vertical growth.^1,4 Accompanying the increase in height is an increase in the center of mass (COM), making control of the trunk more challenging.⁴

As mentioned, push-ups require a coordinated effort by nearly every joint in the body; there isn’t a joint from the hips upward that isn’t involved, with the pelvis and spine being most heavily involved in providing support and structure for the entirety of the trunk. This will be covered in more detail to follow, but it is an essential pubertal change to be aware of for more reasons than just push-ups.

2. Strength and Neuromuscular Control

Following the growth spurt (PHV), it has been documented that girls do not experience what’s referred to in the literature as a neuromuscular spurt. That is to say that in conjunction with an increase in height, center of mass, and body mass, there is not an equal response in neuromuscular strength and coordination to match or pace the other variables of growth.^5,6

“In lay terms, growth results in larger machines in both sexes, but as male subjects mature, they adapt with disproportionately more muscle “horsepower” to match the control demands of their larger machine. Female subjects do not show similar adaptations.”⁶

This difference is most notable with upper body development: “The disproportionate strength increase is most apparent during male adolescence, and is greater in the upper extremities than in the trunk or lower extremities.”⁷

This is not to say that strength does not increase—it has been documented that strength does increase linearly in girls. However, there is not a marked or observed time of peak acceleration.²

Although we can observe sexual dimorphism at this phase of development, it’s essential to adopt the mindset that these are not reasons why girls cannot do push-ups, but rather why prescribing upper body strength work should be distinctly different in certain regards and why painting your girls and boys with the same brush is not providing each with the training they need.

Positions

Before we can teach athletes how to navigate a more global pattern like push-ups, it’s important to address specific positional awareness of their pelvis, head, and scapulae. This part gets a bit nitty-gritty, but it creates a foundational footprint for further training. It is blatantly low fruit that seems to be largely forgotten in the early stages of athletic development.

Before we can teach athletes how to navigate a more global pattern like push-ups, it’s important to address specific positional awareness of their pelvis, head, and scapulae, says @rachelkh2. Share on X

For lack of creativity, I use the term “bony structures” because it simply involves teaching how to move parts of the axial and appendicular skeleton. Without teaching this prior to further push-up work (or other lifts), we end up with a roomful of athletes stuck in extension, hanging on their structures.

For a visual, I ask four students to stand in a square pattern and have the class imagine the four standing are holding a corner of a huge blanket. Then I ask what would happen if I poured 10 gallons of water in the middle. The answer, of course, is that the center would sink to the bottom, if not pull the corners out of the participants’ hands.

This is a true walk-before-you-crawl approach because even before the most basic of movements, like planks, the ability to manipulate these areas into their most advantageous positions is an essential piece of development. I partly attribute the need for work in these areas to PHV and changes in COM. However, it is plausible to include lifestyle factors as well as early specialization as reasons for this unawareness.

1. Posterior Pelvic Tilt or Anti-Extension: We’ve all witnessed athletes who attempt to perform a plank or push-up, but their belly button sags to the floor due to lumbar hyperextension. This puts stress on the individual facet joints but can also be unhealthy for the shoulders, as we can often observe the scapulae dive forward in accompaniment. This is corrected by teaching posterior pelvic tilt or anti-extension of the lumbar spine. We can correct it by teaching anti-extension exercises like dead bugs.

In my experience, the easiest and most effective way to introduce this is in a supine position and then transition to a prone position, as it’s specific to push-ups and other prone exercises, like fallouts or ab wheel rollouts.

2. Cervical Retraction: Typically, we can also observe pronounced cervical extension, where the head is in front of the body or the eyes are looking upward. Correcting this involves teaching how to retract and protract the neck. I’ve found a seated position to be the best place to start, then prone. In a prone position, we begin to increase strength, as it provides gravitational resistance. Cervical retraction, like the posterior pelvic tilt, is a small but binding piece of a bigger movement puzzle. Forgoing the instruction of either leaves other movements, like RDLs, lacking.

Video 1. Example of cervical retraction in a seated and then a prone position.

3. Scapular Protraction and Retraction: Based on my experience, there will always be athletes who don’t know how to move their scapulae around their rib cage. This is important for successful pushing and pulling movements and helps prevent unwanted elevation or anterior tipping in movements like push-ups. Again, I teach this in a general way, first in a seated position, instructing them to feel their shoulder blade, then in a prone position. Teaching this early paves the way for correct rowing, vertical pulling, and pushing techniques.

Video 2. Example of shoulder protraction and retraction.

Progressions

Push-up execution is a marathon process, requiring diligent and thorough coaching. The most successful approach I’ve found is establishing a strong isometric base, then progressing to the eccentric and concentric simultaneously, but in different ways.

This is also where I’ve observed the most significant difference between genders. Girls will need more time developing concentric pushing strength before they’re able to do full push-ups, whereas, with boys, I’ve found the positional work to be most needed. The most important thing is to meet your girls where they are rather than rushing them to a specific endpoint. Be creative and find ways to help them be successful.

Girls need more time developing concentric pushing strength before they can do full push-ups, whereas, with boys, I’ve found the positional work to be most needed, says @rachelkh2. Share on X

Weight rooms are obviously full of weights, and they can be utilized in numerous ways, their primary design aside. For instance (noted in my progressions chart below), before we get into more traditional bench variations, I have my girls use bumper plates to train their pushing strength. I think in many cases, depending on the age group, this is a superior place to begin—for us, it’s also out of necessity due to a lack of appropriate-weight dumbbells.

Recently, Alan Bishop tweeted some great information about the strength deficit between maximal eccentric and concentric capacity. Essentially, the ratio of eccentric strength to concentric will always be greater. However, by emphasizing the eccentric, we can further widen the “gap,” theoretically bringing up concentric capacity. And to steal another point from Alan, I have no double-blind studies to back this up when it comes to submaximal or relative strength application, only anecdotal experience and 46% of all my female athletes demonstrating the ability to perform technically sound push-ups at the close of the 2021–2022 school year.

To return to the eccentric ratio, once we establish positions, we progress to the eccentric, or lowering part, of the push-up, while maintaining those bony positions. Although the concentric, or “up” phase, may be lacking for some, the isometric and eccentric phases are at work here and, as we know, are a strong stimulus for strength. This is also important to build the pattern-specific neuromuscular coordination that is so vital at this time.

Isometric: With my middle school athletes and incoming ninth graders, we spend a lot of time developing positional strength using planks. As with other movements, good positions should be established first. With push-ups, it begins with planks. Yes, they’re boring, but not entirely useless. And while there are better ways to train bracing, planks are a powerful precursor to push-ups. They’re an isometric classroom when we consider the number of structures that can be manipulated and strengthened: posterior pelvic tilt, cervical retraction, end range shoulder protraction.

Planks are an isometric classroom when we consider the number of structures that can be manipulated and strengthened: posterior pelvic tilt, cervical retraction, end range shoulder protraction. Share on X

It’s essential to establish positional awareness in this static position because if they struggle with a plank, they will fail in a more dynamic progression. Once they get to high school, I begin progressing their anti-extension movements, as seen in the chart.

Note: I think external load can be successfully used with middle school athletes, depending on your circumstances. I have very large groups, with both limited equipment and space, so we maximize body weight, tempo, and positions, which has worked well.

Eccentric: Once they can demonstrate a plank, keeping their lumbar and cervical spine out of extension, in 20-second intervals, I add the eccentric portion. However, it’s common for them to default back to extension patterns. For this reason, I incorporate hands-elevated lowers, but band-assisted lowers are preferred, as they allow for a full range of motion. And depending on the group, I’ll utilize a two- to three-week eccentric bench phase to continue accentuating the strength deficit.

Video 3. Athletes demonstrating the eccentric, or lowering portion, of the push-up while trying to maintain bony structures.

Concentric: I think progressions can be taken to the extreme, and at some point, the athlete just needs to get stronger. However, if we’re “slow cooking,” putting a barbell in the hands of a novice with no requisite skill patterning is contradictory and short-sighted. Progressions provide checks for proficiency, safety, and confidence. They bridge one movement to the next and set athletes up for success.

With these progressions, I often use more than one in conjunction with another. For instance, the bench press may serve as our primary upper lift, but I’ll include push-ups or band-assisted push-ups as accessory work within the same lift. Coaches should note that once an athlete can perform a full push-up, it is important to prescribe them in lower volumes, so they can complete quality reps and continue to get stronger. Don’t crush their confidence to satisfy your ego-driven goals.

Video 4. Concentric pressing progressions: plate press, DB bench, bench, assisted push-ups.

Push to Close

If our goal is to build strength and develop skills for the long term, we need to step back and take a part(s)-before-the-whole approach, even with bodyweight movements. For females, push-ups are more of a reflection of strength than a foundational strength builder. And with novices, I don’t think prescribing them is realistic or feasible until the other aspects of strength and control are established.

With novices, I don’t think prescribing push-ups is realistic or feasible until the other aspects of strength and control are established, says @rachelkh2. Share on X

Video 5. Athletes performing sets of push-ups.

This can be a rewarding and meaningful process for girls, and trust me, they want to be able to do push-ups and demonstrate their upper body strength. Help them reach these goals in a way that challenges them but also empowers them to keep pushing—no pun intended (well, maybe).

We must meet our athletes where they are, and failing to observe and serve their present state is an oversight. Coach the needs of the athlete in front of you and set them up for success. This may entail differences in programming and progressing, and that’s okay; it’s to be expected. Rather than dismiss the differences in our athletes or blanket them with the same training, we need to embrace and understand their differences to help them succeed.

*Author’s Note: This article is dedicated to Dr. Shelley Long, who’s taught me more about strength than any weight room ever could.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Elalaily R, and Bedair S. “Advances in Pubertal Growth and Factors Influencing It: Can We Increase Pubertal Growth?” Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Nov 2014;18(Suppl 1):S53–S62.

2. Beunen G and Malina RM. “Growth and Physical Performance Relative to the Timing of the Adolescent Spurt.” Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews. Jan. 1988;16(1):503–540.

3. Rogol AD, Clark PA, and Roemmich JN. “Growth and Pubertal Development in Children and Adolescents: Effects of Diet and Physical Activity.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Aug. 2000;72(2 Suppl):521S–528S.

4. Myer GD, Chu DA, Jensen EB, and Hewett TE. “Trunk and Hip Control Neuromuscular Training for the Prevention of Knee Joint Injury.” Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine. July 2008;27(3):425–ix.

5. Hewett TE, Myer GD, and Ford KR. “Decrease in Neuromuscular Control About the Knee With Maturation in Female Athletes.” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. Aug. 2004;86(8):1601–1608.

6. Hewett TE and Myer GD. “The Mechanistic Connection Between the Trunk, Knee, and Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury.” Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews. Oct. 2011;39(4):161–166.

7. Beunen G and Malina R. “Growth and Biologic Maturation: Relevance to Athletic Performance.” In The Young Athlete. April 2008.

Injuries are an unfortunate part of sports and can be physically and emotionally taxing on an athlete. As such, optimizing one’s rehabilitative process for a full return to sport is of paramount importance for athletes and clinicians alike.

While appropriate physical training can reduce the risks associated with sustaining musculoskeletal injuries, they can never be entirely eliminated. Because of this, there will always be a need for recovery interventions that can augment and accelerate the athlete’s recovery back to pre-injury status (and hopefully beyond this level).

Of the multitude of therapeutic modalities and strengthening interventions that can be utilized for rehabilitating musculoskeletal injuries, one exciting intervention—blood flow restriction therapy (BFR)—has been gaining popularity over recent years, particularly for the lower extremities. The lower extremity is reported to be the most frequently injured area of the body, with the hamstrings and the rectus femoris (a quadriceps muscle) being two of the most commonly injured muscles of the lower extremity.^1–3

The popularity of an intervention doesn’t necessarily guarantee its effectiveness, but a look at the scientific literature on blood flow restriction therapy backs up the claims. Share on X

But the popularity of an intervention doesn’t necessarily guarantee its effectiveness. So, if this therapeutic intervention is as effective as many claim it to be, a look at the scientific literature should back it up. And—spoiler alert—it does.

However, simply having a general awareness of an intervention’s effectiveness doesn’t mean much if you don’t understand the nature of when, how, and why it can be utilized.

So, let’s break this all down and let science lead the way!

Challenges with Lower Extremity Injuries

Regaining muscle strength and mass following injury is necessary for a successful return to sport. When injured, the longer the athlete goes without physically loading and stimulating the affected muscles (in this case, the muscles within their lower extremity), the greater the loss of strength and the greater the extent of muscle atrophy (shrinking) they will experience.⁴

The principle of progressive overload involves repeated stimulation of specific muscles (typically through a resistance training program) to induce favorable morphological changes in these targeted tissues. These changes can include the following:

• Structural changes to muscle fibers (increasing their contractile strength).
• Increasing the cross-sectional area (CSA) of muscle fibers.
• Improved neuromuscular efficiency between the neuromuscular junction.

With traditional strength training, an individual must use resistance of approximately 65%–­70% of their one-repetition maximum (1RM) to trigger a stimulus that will elicit increases in muscle size (muscle hypertrophy) and strength.^5,6

The problem for the injured athlete is the extent of required muscular force and effort needed to elicit these positive changes via progressive overload. The required 65%–70% maximal contractile ability can easily exceed the force production capabilities of the injured muscles and tendons (especially in earlier phases of injury recovery), which could lead to increased pain, further injury, and, ultimately, a prolonged recovery.

Additionally, the athlete may have otherwise healthy muscles but an injured or painful joint (hip, knee, ankle, etc.) incapable of bearing such loads. This inability to put such a load through a joint essentially determines how much stimulus its associated muscles can receive.

The longer the athlete must go without adequate muscle stimulus, the more extensive their loss of functional capacity will be within the limb. And herein lies the problem for many athletes and rehabilitative specialists: How do you make a muscle stronger when it (or its associated joint) doesn’t have the capacity to withstand the mechanical stress required for physical strengthening?

The traditional route taken by many rehabilitative specialists is the use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), which involves placing electrodes over the targeted muscles and delivering an external electrical current through the skin, making the muscles contract.

While NMES certainly has a time and a place in musculoskeletal rehab, it also has its drawbacks, two of which are:

1. The ability of the electrode pads to only target superficial muscles and not necessarily deeper muscles.⁷
2. A highly inefficient and unnatural pattern of motor unit recruitment when compared to the body’s own motor unit recruitment pattern via the nervous system.⁸

Also, NMES cannot account for providing functional and sport-based movements that the athlete requires in late-stage rehab as part of a return-to-play protocol.

As such, a better way to provide adequate strength-inducing stimuli to injured muscle tissue has remained rather elusive for athletes and healthcare practitioners alike up until recently.

What Is Blood Flow Restriction Therapy?

Enter blood flow restriction therapy, a strength training intervention involving a restrictive cuff placed around the injured or affected limb with a predetermined amount of circumferential tension. This tension partly (but not fully) impedes blood flow to the working extremity and is maintained while the athlete or individual performs exercise against a predetermined load.

And here’s the kicker: That predetermined load doesn’t have to be anywhere near traditional strength training loads to elicit positive effects on the muscle(s).

Numerous studies have shown that BFR therapy can produce statistically significant changes in muscle size and strength when exercising at only 20%–30% of the individual’s 1RM rather than the traditional 65%–70% 1RM.^9–12

Numerous studies have shown that BFR therapy can produce statistically significant changes in muscle size and strength when exercising at only 20%–30% of the individual’s 1RM. Share on X

This allows the athlete to initiate strength training interventions much earlier in their rehab, equating to significantly decreased mechanical stress on the injured (and still vulnerable) tissues and structures.

BFR has been studied in various demographics, ranging from young, healthy athletes to frail, injured, and elderly populations. As such, it also has a time and place outside the world of rehabilitation. For the sake of this article, however, I’ll only focus on rehabilitative interventions within active populations.

How Does BFR Work?

While the exact mechanisms of BFR’s abilities to positively impact muscle strength and size at such a low intensity aren’t fully understood, there exists a decent amount of scientific data suggesting that the factors most responsible for BFR’s positive effects include:

• Metabolic changes to the local muscle environment (state of hypoxia, enzymatic changes, lactate levels, etc.).
• Neuromuscular changes, such as altered motor unit firing and recruitment patterns.
• Endocrine (hormonal) changes, including plasma growth therapy hormone (GH), norepinephrine (NE), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1).

Essentially, this means that low-load BFR training likely produces favorable changes in muscle size and strength through mechanisms other than strictly through mechanical tension alone.^13,14

Traditional strength training relies extensively on muscle changes arising through mechanical tension. However, due to the low loads utilized with BFR, it seems that mechanical tension doesn’t play an extensive role when compared to the various metabolic changes it has shown to create within the targeted muscles. It is also possible that the combination of these two factors is responsible for the positive muscular effects seen with BFR training.

How to Perform BFR Training

BFR training for the lower extremities is most often performed by placing the restrictive cuff just below the gluteal fold of the thigh (just beneath your butt cheek). The cuff is placed as high as possible around the extremity to ensure that:

1. The cuff does not impede movement or create discomfort when moving or exercising.
2. The injured tissue is distal to (beneath) the area of cuff restriction.
3. The greatest extent of metabolic buildup occurs by having as much muscle fiber as possible undergo the restricted rate of blood flow.

When it comes to using restrictive cuffs, two primary cuff types can be utilized:

1. Elastic bands or wraps.
2. Pneumatic cuffs.

Elastic bands are the least expensive and most readily available options for most athletes. These can include common fitness bands such as Voodoo flossing bands or powerlifting knee wraps. While inexpensive and easy to acquire, their main drawback is their lack of dedicated feedback to ensure ideal pressure around the limb is utilized.

Pneumatic (air pressure) cuffs are the second option. While they’re more expensive and less readily available, they provide the user with accurate pressure readings for how much pressure is being placed around the extremity. These cuffs work by increasing the pressure around the extremity through manually controlled or automatically controlled means. The complexity (and subsequent cost) of these cuffs can range significantly from one system to the next.

Cuff Width and Pressure

Selecting ideal restriction pressure should be of paramount interest when performing BFR therapy; too little pressure will nullify any benefits derived from BFR, while excessive pressure can lead to excessive discomfort, pain, and numbness and prevent successful completion of the exercise.

Many studies that have examined the strength and cross-sectional area enhancement of muscle tissue with BFR therapy utilize restriction pressures ranging from 140 mmHg to 240 mmHg. A pressure ranging between 160 mmHg and 180 mmHg is often used, as this amount of pressure will occlude femoral arterial blood flow by 50%.¹⁵

Cuff width can also play a factor in the overall comfort of BFR therapy. Cuffs wider than 13.5 centimeters have been shown to cause greater subjective amounts of pain than cuffs 5 centimeters wide and inflated to the same pressure (200 mmHg).¹⁶

Exercises, Sets, and Reps

Exercise parameters utilized for BFR training can vary significantly based on numerous factors pertaining to the injured athlete. This can include the location and severity of their muscular injury, the stage of rehab, current pain levels, and other factors unique to the athlete. As such, there is plenty of room for the clinician to draw from their clinical expertise when employing BFR therapy.

Generally speaking, lower extremity exercises involving large and multiple muscle groups are ideal. The scientific literature commonly features studies using leg extensions. However, numerous other exercises can be utilized based on the athlete’s needs and equipment availability.

While there is no universal “right or wrong” protocol to follow when performing strengthening exercises, a highly utilized set and rep scheme within the scientific literature is the 30/15/15/15 protocol, which has been shown to be effective.^17–20

This protocol involves performing the initial exercise set for 30 repetitions, followed by a 30-second break. From there, 15 repetitions are performed for the second set, with a 30-second break afterward. This process is repeated until four total sets have been completed, with the last three sets consisting of 15 repetitions each.

The first set involves a higher repetition scheme with the belief that it will foster a more extensive metabolic change within the working and surrounding muscles. The short breaks between sets help ensure that the working muscles receive an inadequate recovery, helping to continually change the metabolic environment within the muscles.

Results of BFR therapy are best obtained by utilizing a continuous pressure (i.e., keeping the limb partially occluded during rest breaks) rather than an intermittent pressure. Share on X

It’s important to mention that results of BFR therapy are best obtained by utilizing a continuous pressure (i.e., keeping the limb partially occluded during rest breaks) rather than an intermittent pressure (where pressure is relieved between sets).²¹

For athletes in the early stages of rehab, or those not accustomed to BRF interventions, one singular exercise may be ideal. As the athlete gains confidence, strength, and endurance, additional exercises can likely be added. As a general rule, maximal cuff time should not exceed 20 minutes.

Additionally, it’s worth noting that BFR interventions can also involve walking protocols. Walking protocols have been commonly studied and produce favorable outcomes in muscle strength and hypertrophy.^22–24 While these protocols aren’t covered within this article, I have included general parameters in table 1.

How Often Should You Perform BFR Training?

With traditional strength training, the amount of mechanical stress the working muscles undergo necessitates a recovery period of anywhere from 48–72 hours before the muscles can tolerate another strength training stimulus.

With BFR therapy, this recovery period is typically not required, as the low 20%–30% intensity places minimal mechanical stress on the muscles and tendons compared to traditional strength training at higher loads. It is also much less taxing on the central nervous system.

Numerous scientific studies have implemented BFR training protocols ranging from twice a week to twice a day. While the training frequency most ideal for the injured athlete will be dictated by numerous factors (type of injury, stage of recovery, lifestyle factors, etc.), generally speaking, BFR therapy can take place at a much greater weekly frequency than with traditional strength training.^25,26 This high volume of frequent, low-intensity stimulations can likely greatly assist with the rate of recovery.

Generally speaking, BFR therapy can take place at a much greater weekly frequency than therapy with traditional strength training. Share on X

In general, a higher frequency of BFR intervention has yielded more favorable results than a lower session frequency, so long as exercise repetitions are not taken to volitional exhaustion (doing so can lead to delayed onset muscle soreness, which leads to reduced training frequency).

Safety Considerations with BFR Training

The most effective therapy in the world doesn’t mean much if it isn’t safe. As such, understanding the general consensus on the safety of BFR therapy (and its contraindications) is vital to anyone utilizing this intervention.

On the whole, BFR therapy is regarded to be a safe intervention for otherwise healthy populations, based on multiple studies examining various safety aspects.

On the whole, BFR therapy is regarded to be a safe intervention for otherwise healthy populations, based on multiple studies examining various safety aspects. Share on X

Some of these aspects include:^27,28

• No impact on blood clotting when examined by changes in fibrin D-dimer.
• No impact on peripheral vascular mechanics.
• No impact on peripheral nerve conduction.

When Not to Use BFR Therapy (Contraindications)

As with any other therapeutic modality or intervention, there are times when BFR shouldn’t be utilized. While not an exhaustive list, general contraindications include the following:²⁹

• History of deep venous thrombosis (blood clots).
• Varicose veins.
• Pregnancy.
• Over open wounds or skin lesions.
• Diminished, absent, or altered sensation within the lower extremity.

Best Bet for Motivated Athletes

Every rehabilitative intervention has a time and place for its use. With BFR therapy, the best results will likely be obtained with motivated athletes who wish to take an active role in their rehabilitation. By appropriately stimulating (and challenging) skeletal muscle fiber at earlier phases of injury recovery, the athlete is likely to minimize muscle atrophy and strength loss while subsequently reducing time spent on the sidelines.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Briggs AM, Cross MJ, Hoy DG, et al. “Musculoskeletal health conditions represent a global threat to healthy aging: A report for the 2015 World Health Organization world report on ageing and health.” The Gerontologist. 2016;56(suppl_2):S243–S255.
2. Kell RT, Bell G, and Quinney A. “Musculoskeletal fitness, health outcomes and quality of life.” Sports Medicine. 2001;31(12):863–873.
3. Chan O, Del Buono A, Best TM, and Maffulli N. “Acute muscle strain injuries: A proposed new classification system.” Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 2012;20(11):2356–2362.
4. Hart JM, Pietrosimone B, Hertel J, and Ingersoll DC. “Quadriceps Activation Following Knee Injuries: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Athletic Training. 2010;45(1):87–97. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-45.1.87
5. Wernbom M, Augustsson J, and Roland T. “The Influence of Frequency, Intensity, Volume and Mode of Strength Training on Whole Muscle Cross-Sectional Area in Humans.” Sports Medicine. 2007;37(3):225–264. doi:10.2165/00007256-200737030-00004
6. Schoenfeld BJ. “The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their Application to Resistance Training.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2010;24(10:2857–2872. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3
7. Fuglevand AJ, Winter DA, Patla AE, and Stashuk D. “Detection of motor unit action potentials with surface electrodes: influence of electrode size and spacing.” Biological Cybernetics. 1992;67(2):143–153.
8. Doucet BM, Lam A, and Griffin L. “Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for skeletal muscle function.” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 2012;85(2);201.
9. Loenneke JP, Wilson JM, Marín PJ, Zourdos MC, and Bemben MG. “Low intensity blood flow restriction training: a meta-analysis.” European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2012:112(5):1849–1959. doi:10.1007/s00421-011-2167-x
10. Slysz J, Stultz J, and Burr JF. “The efficacy of blood flow restricted exercise: A systematic review & meta-analysis.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2016;19(8):669–675. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2015.09.005
11. Hughes L, Paton B, Rosenblatt B, Gissane C, and Patterson SD. “Blood flow restriction training in clinical musculoskeletal rehabilitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2017;51(13):1003–1011. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-097071
12. Centner C, Wiegel P, Gollhofer A, and König D. “Effects of blood flow restriction training on muscular strength and hypertrophy in older individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Sports Medicine. 2019;49(1):95–108.
13. Pearson SJ and Hussain SR. “A Review on the Mechanisms of Blood-Flow Restriction Resistance Training-Induced Muscle Hypertrophy.” Sports Medicine. 2015;45(2):187–200. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0264-9
14. Loenneke JP, Wilson GJ, and Wilson JM. “A Mechanistic Approach to Blood Flow Occlusion.” International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2010;31(1):1–4. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1239499
15. Takano H, Morita T, Iida H, et al. “Hemodynamic and hormonal responses to a short-term low-intensity resistance exercise with the reduction of muscle blood flow.” European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2005;95(1):65–73. doi:10.1007/s00421-005-1389-1
16. Rossow LM, Fahs CA, Loenneke JP, et al. “Cardiovascular and perceptual responses to blood-flow-restricted resistance exercise with differing restrictive cuffs.” Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging. 2012;32(5):331–337.
17. Martín-Hernández J, Marín PJ, Menéndez H, Ferrero C, Loenneke JP, and Herrero AJ. “Muscular adaptations after two different volumes of blood flow-restricted training: Analysis of occlusion training volume.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2013;23(2):e114–e120.
18. Yasuda T, Ogasawara R, Sakamaki M, Ozaki H, Sato Y, and Abe T. “Combined effects of low-intensity blood flow restriction training and high-intensity resistance training on muscle strength and size. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2011;111(10):2525–2533. doi:10.1007/s00421-011-1873-8
19. Vechin FC, Libardi CA, Conceição MS, et al. “Comparisons Between Low-Intensity Resistance Training With Blood Flow Restriction and High-Intensity Resistance Training on Quadriceps Muscle Mass and Strength in Elderly.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2015;29(4):1071–1076. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000000703
20. Yasuda T, Loenneke JP, Thiebaud RS, and Abe T. “Effects of Blood Flow Restricted Low-Intensity Concentric or Eccentric Training on Muscle Size and Strength.” Garatachea N, ed. PloS ONE. 2012;7(12):e52843. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052843
21. Fahs CA, Loenneke JP, Rossow LM, Tiebaud RS, and Bemben MG. “Methodological considerations for blood flow restricted resistance exercise.” Journal of Trainology. 2012;1(1):14–22. doi:10.17338/trainology.1.1_14
22. Sakamaki M, Bemben MG, and Abe T. “Legs and trunk muscle hypertrophy following walk training with restricted leg muscle blood flow.” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 10(2):338.
23. Abe T, Kearns CF, and Sato Y. “Muscle size and strength are increased following walk training with restricted venous blood flow from the leg muscle, Kaatsu-walk training.” Journal of Applied Physiology. 2006;100:7.
24. Abe T, Kearns CF, Fujita S, Sakamaki M, Sato Y, and Brechue WF. “Skeletal muscle size and strength are increased following walk training with restricted leg muscle blood flow: implications for training duration and frequency.” International Journal of KAATSU Training Research. 2009;5(1):9–15. doi:10.3806;ijktr.5.9
25. Fujkita T, Brechue WF, Kurita K, Sato Y, and Abe T. “Increased muscle volume and strength following six days of low-intensity resistance training with restricted muscle blood flow.” International Journal of KAATSU Training Research. 2008;4(1):1–8.
26. Abe T, Yasuda T, Midorikawa T, et al. “Skeletal muscle size and circulating IGF-1 are increased after two weeks of twice daily “KAATSU” resistance training.” International Journal of KAATSU Training Research. 2005:1(1):6–12. doi:10.3806/ijktr.1.6
27. Clark BC, Manini TM, Hoffman RL, et al. “Relative safety of 4 weeks of blood flow-restricted resistance exercise in young, healthy adults: Blood flow restricted exercise.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2011;21(5):543–662. doi: 10.111/j.1600-0838.2010.01100.x
28. Loenneke JP, Wilson JM, Wilson GJ, Pujol TJ, and Bemben MG. “Potential safety issues with blood flow restriction training: Safety of blood flow-restricted exercise.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2011;21(4):510–518. Doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01290.x
29. Mason MJS, Owens JG, and Brown LWJ. “Blood flow restriction training: Current and future applications for the rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries. Techniques in Orthopaedics. 2018;33(2):71.

 

A half-century ago, there was a universal approach to getting strong. Bodybuilders, weightlifters, and powerlifters performed many of the same lifts and often competed in the other disciplines. Arnold Schwarzenegger, for example, was as strong as he looked, bench pressing 441 pounds and deadlifting 683 in competition. Track and field throwers and football players soon discovered the benefits of pumping iron, and sports journalists became fond of asking NFL linemen, “How much can you bench?”

The nature of sports is that on many levels, “talent prevails,” which is why college athletic programs devote so much attention and money to recruiting. It’s also true that champions can become champions without ever setting foot in a weight room. A baseball player can lead his team in RBIs without pumping his biceps with curls, and a basketball player can become an MVP without doing a single squat. Further, some types of weight training can harm athletic performance. For example, putting a distance runner or a figure skater on the same muscle-bulking workouts that Arnold used to win his seven Mr. Olympia titles is probably not a good idea.

With velocity-based training, the quality of movement is more important than the quantity of weight, so it’s not a question of how much you can bench but how fast you can bench. Share on X

This brings us to velocity-based training (VBT), where the quality of movement is more important than the quantity of weight. From a VBT approach, the question to be answered is not “How much can you bench?” but “How fast can you bench?”

Header photo by Viviana Podhaiski, LiftingLife.com

12 Pioneers of Velocity Training

The following dozen individuals were chosen for their influence on getting strength coaches on board with velocity training. Let’s get started.

1. Yuri Verkhoshansky

Sports scientist Yuri Verkhoshansky is credited with developing a form of advanced plyometrics known as “shock training,” publishing his first article on the subject in 1964.

A track coach specializing in the jumps, Verkhoshansky attempted to duplicate the lower body stress in the various track events indoors by having his athletes perform heavy quarter squats. Working through a partial range enabled these athletes to lift considerably more weight than they could in conventional squats, often two to three times as much. Unfortunately, using such weights created excessive stress on the lumbar spine, and Verkhoshansky’s athletes complained of back pain. His solution was to experiment with a more intense form of plyometrics that didn’t overload the spine.

What distinguished Verkhoshansky’s plyometrics from conventional jump training was that the concentric movement (i.e., leg extension) was preceded by a relaxed state and involved a mechanical “shock.” Stepping off a low platform (so that the quads are relaxed) and immediately rebounding is an example of shock training. This approach enabled the tendons to act as biological springs, quickly releasing the stored elastic energy that developed during the landing. To learn more, invest in a copy of Supertraining by Verkhoshansky and Dr. Mel Siff, along with the more practical book Verkhoshansky wrote with his daughter called Special Strength Training Manual for Coaches.

The problem with shock training is that U.S. coaches often underestimate the stress of this training and don’t understand how to condition the body for it. This causes injuries, particularly overuse injuries, and often poor results. One former U.S. shot put champion told me he tore a patella tendon doing box jumps.

2–4. Alexander S. Medvedyev, Arkady N. Vorobyev, and Robert A. Roman

The translations of these three popular weightlifting sports scientists, among others, gave us insight into the optimal weights to use for explosive training. Unlike powerlifting or strongman, where an athlete has much longer to display their strength, weightlifting requires strength to be displayed as rapidly as possible.

In weightlifting, the amount of weight used in relation to a lifter’s 1-repetition maximum (1RM) determines the intensity. Thus, if a lifter’s 1RM squat is 100 pounds, 100 pounds is 100% intensity. A lift of 85 pounds, no matter how many reps the athlete performs, would still be 85% intensity. These training intensities would be organized into intensity zones. Each zone focused on a different aspect of training. Higher intensities developed strength, and lower intensities developed explosiveness.

The primary intensity zones were divided into 10% increments, such as 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89, and 90–100. Let’s say a coach is planning workouts for the squat for a month. Not counting sets performed with less than 60% of the 1RM, let’s say the coach decided to prescribe 40 reps. They might distribute the repetitions in this manner:

As a weightlifter progressed, they would perform more lifts in the higher-intensity zones. Whereas a novice lifter might perform only two reps in the 90–100 zone in the clean and jerk in a month, an advanced lifter might perform seven reps. This approach parallels that of sprint coach Charlie Francis, who focused more on higher-intensity workouts with his elite athletes.

For the Olympic lifts, the coach would look at the ratios of these lifts to the squat to determine where to focus their repetitions. It’s a question of balance between strength and speed. If an athlete had a high squat in relation to their clean and jerk, the coach might prescribe lower-intensity squats so they could put more effort into performing an increased number of heavier clean and jerks. If their clean and jerk result was close to their results in the squat, they might perform an increased number of higher-intensity squats.

The Olympic press was a standing press that used the abdominal muscles to help thrust the weight overhead. After the 1972 Olympics, the lift was dropped from competition, leaving the snatch and the clean and jerk. The press was considered an “equalizer” in weightlifting, such that slower but stronger athletes could develop a big lead in the press to make up for a relatively poor showing in the snatch. This new emphasis on speed over strength resulted in significant changes in program design, and many inherently strong athletes gravitated toward powerlifting and strongman competitions.

5. J. J. Perrine

Perrine is credited with developing an isokinetic device that controlled the speed at which a resistance was lifted. This type of exercise was called “accommodating resistance,” such that the trainee could exert maximum effort through the full range of the concentric contraction. Isokinetics became a popular form of resistance training in rehabilitation, as the user could immediately reduce the resistance or safely stop if they experienced discomfort.

The significance of isokinetic training to VBT was that it confirmed the theory that force production is speed-specific. Share on X

The significance of isokinetic training to VBT was that it confirmed the theory that force production is speed-specific. In studies on swimmers, training at slow speeds produced changes in strength at slow speeds but not at high speeds. Training at high speeds increased strength at all speeds, but training at slow speeds produced the greatest strength increases at slow speeds.

For athletic fitness training, consider that acceleration is a component of power. Isokinetic machines do not allow you to accelerate the resistance, thus reducing power. There is also no eccentric component in isokinetic training. Canadian strength coach and posturologist Paul Gagné has studied velocity training extensively, applying this research to his elite athletes. “One problem with isokinetic training is there is no eccentric resistance, which is essential to use the elastic components of the tissues effectively.”

6. Carl Miller

Miller earned a master’s degree in exercise science and was a remarkable weightlifter and coach. He was appointed as the head coach of the 1978 U.S. Weightlifting team at the World Championships and coached weightlifter Luke Klaja when he earned a place on the 1980 U.S. Olympic team. Miller also “walked the talk.” After enduring two spinal fusions by age 41, Miller snatched 281 pounds and clean and jerked 352 pounds! Twenty years later, he cleaned 319 pounds and ran 4.91 in the 40-yard dash.

Miller visited Bulgarian Weightlifting Head Coach Ivan Abadjiev to learn about their training methods, as that country had become a weightlifting powerhouse. Abadjiev athletes won 12 Olympic gold medals and 54 World Championships. In a training camp I attended in 1977, he discussed a unique way that weightlifters could increase their lifting speed.

Power is the amount of work done in a specific amount of time (technically: Power = Force x Distance / Time). Another way to look at power is that it measures the most effective force in athletic movements. Miller cited a force-velocity chart with a vertical “Y” axis representing force and a horizontal “X” axis representing velocity. He said maximum power would equal 50 percent of maximum speed and 50 percent of maximum strength.

Miller suggested that weightlifters who needed to increase their lifting speed would benefit by performing lifts such as power snatches and power cleans at one-half their 1RM. The problem with weightlifting is that the barbell is the sport, and lifting 50% weights doesn’t translate into the technique used with heavy weights. In many Eastern European weightlifting textbooks, weights less than 70% are often not mentioned in workouts since they are considered a warm-up. (Funny story: During a seminar he gave in Rhode Island a dozen years ago, I asked Abadjiev about using submaximal weights to increase barbell speed. He replied, “I don’t want my athletes to lift light weights fast—I want them to lift heavy weights fast!”)

Although Miller’s 50% method didn’t catch on in the weightlifting community, Louie Simmons popularized high-speed training with his “dynamic effort” workouts for powerlifting and sports training.

7. Louie Simmons

One of the most influential coaches in powerlifting was Louie Simmons of the famous Westside Barbell Club. The key to his success was a workout system called Conjugate, which involved using various training methods every week to avoid plateaus. He called one of these methods “dynamic effort,” which involved moving moderate weights as fast as possible.

Louie Simmons believed that focusing on high-velocity training methods in the lifts would enable powerlifters and other athletes to become more explosive. Share on X

Besides dynamic effort workouts, Simmons experimented with chains and bands to increase explosiveness. Although the power lifts are performed relatively slowly compared to the Olympic lifts, Simmons believed that focusing on high-velocity training methods in the lifts would enable powerlifters and other athletes to become more explosive. (For more on Louie Simmons, check out the documentary Westside Versus the World, available on Amazon.com.)

8. Fred Hatfield, Ph.D.

Fred “Dr. Squat” Hatfield was a college professor who squatted 1,000 pounds in 1987. (FYI: The first to squat 1,000 was Lee Moran, who did this at the USPF Senior Nationals in 1984). In 1982, Hatfield introduced the concept of “Compensatory Acceleration,” which entails increasing overload by moving as quickly as possible. He believed athletes would develop maximum power if they thought about moving quickly, even if the weight moved slowly.

9. Ian J. King

Although he hasn’t received the exposure of other strength coaches, Australia’s Ian King produced many thought-provoking books and other resources about strength coaching. King is credited with developing a three-digit formula for prescribing movement speed in weight training exercises. This formula got strength coaches thinking about lifting speed.

Using a bench press as an example, a 421 tempo prescription would mean you would lower the barbell to your chest in four seconds, pause at the chest for two seconds, then press the bar to extended arms in one second. An “X” would mean “as fast as possible.” Thus, 42X means you would press the bar off the chest as fast as good technique allowed.

Later, King’s formula was expanded to four digits by Canadian strength coach Charles R. Poliquin, with the fourth digit representing the pause in the advantageous leverage position (such as when the barbell is held at extended arms in the bench press). Thus, a 42X1 formula for the bench press would mean you would rest for one second with the bar at extended arms before starting another repetition.

10. Jim Napier

Napier was a U.S. weightlifting champion who broke four American records and competed in the 1977 and 1978 World Weightlifting Championships. He wrote several books on velocity training, explaining why speed should not be sacrificed for weight in weightlifting. One comment that summarizes Napier’s ideas is, “I don’t care how much you squat, but how much you can squat in one second!” (I should add that Dr. John Garhammer did pioneering work over four decades ago measuring power in many lifts. For example, he found that the power production for a jerk was nearly five times greater than a back squat or a deadlift.)

11–12. Scott Damman and Bryan Mann, Ph.D.

We should credit these two coaches/sports scientists for helping to popularize velocity-based training, particularly using devices such as GymAware that measure bar speed. In addition to conducting practical research on velocity-based training, both Damman and Mann have promoted VBT methods in speaking presentations as well as articles and podcasts available via SimpliFaster.

Damman & Mann helped popularize a modern approach to velocity training that associated specific intensity ranges with a type of strength. The nature of a sport determines which velocity range to use. Share on X

With this modern approach to velocity training, specific intensity ranges are associated with a type of strength. Drawing from the Bosco Strength Continuum, a load (relative to a 1-repetition maximum) of 15%–40% would focus on starting strength, and a load of 80%–100% would focus on absolute strength. For example, in the off-season, athletes would perform more lifts in a slow-velocity zone; as the season approached, athletes would perform more work in a fast-velocity zone. Here are the zones, progression from slowest (>1.3 m/s) to the fastest (<0.5 m/s):

• Absolute strength
• Accelerative strength
• Strength-speed
• Speed-strength
• Starting strength

The nature of the sport would also help determine which velocity zone was used. For example, most football linemen should focus on developing absolute strength more than a wide receiver or a quarterback. That is, they might perform many of the same core lifts in a workout but at different training velocities. VBT can also be used to precisely assess an athlete’s physical preparedness.

Consider the bench press, a universally recognized predictor lift for American football. In the NFL Combine, the 225-pound bench press for reps is the standard for determining a player’s upper body strength and power. The official record of 49 reps was set by defensive tackle Stephen Paea, suggesting it is primarily a muscular endurance test. Because high-rep bench pressing is ballistic (with the athlete bouncing the bar off their chest), it can be quite harsh on the shoulders. Alternatively, an athlete can perform the VBT bench press test to measure upper body power more precisely.

To review, with the Eastern Bloc training systems used by weightlifters, percentages of the 1RM determine how much you lift. The problem is that some days you can perform better than others. Consequently, the prescribed weight could be too light or too heavy, especially since strength performance can vary daily. With velocity-based training, you can test the velocity of the bar throughout a workout to determine how much weight you should use for a specific workout. According to researchers such as Andrew Fry, it can also be used to determine overtraining, which affects power.

Many others have contributed to modern strength training methods, but these 12 individuals should be acknowledged for helping to “change the game” of athletic fitness training. Before closing, let’s look at how VBT influenced the head strength coach of an Ivy League college.

VBT in Action

Brown University Head Strength and Conditioning Coach Brandon O’Neall oversees the training of 1,200+ athletes in 36 varsity and 12 club sports. About 75% of his athletes use VBT. Here’s his story.

“I was introduced to VBT in 2003 when I played football at Central College in Pella, Iowa,” says O’Neall. “Our strength coach, Jake Anderson, came to us from the University of Iowa and implemented their training regimen with us. He brought with him a Tendo unit—he only had one—and was doing some interesting research on measuring barbell speed, rather than relying on reps, percentages, or asking, ‘How does that feel?’”

Beyond the numbers, O’Neall found that one of the primary benefits of using VBT was seeing how it motivated his athletes. “Instead of going into the workout with the attitude to lift more weight than the person next to them, their approach would be, ‘I want to move this weight faster,’ and get immediate feedback with the VBT units.”

Building on Hatfield’s concept of Compensatory Acceleration, O’Neall says VBT provides a form of competition for his athletes to go into a workout with the ‘intent’ to lift quickly. Share on X

Building on Hatfield’s concept of Compensatory Acceleration, O’Neall says VBT provides a form of competition for his athletes to go into a workout with the “intent” to lift quickly. “You can’t underestimate the value of competition. Take sprinting—you’ll run a lot faster if you race against someone than if you run by yourself.” O’Neall also has science on this side, as several studies found that providing immediate feedback on jump squat performance produced superior results in the standing broad jump and sprints performed for distances of 20 and 30 meters.

In 2011, O’Neall joined the Brown coaching staff when the school finished its new weight room, the Zucconi Strength and Conditioning Center. When it came time to purchase equipment, he told the administration that having a VBT unit at every do-it-all lifting platform in his gym was critical. “I’ve been to places that had velocity training devices and those that didn’t, and it’s really tough to replicate the type of workouts I wanted my athletes to perform if you don’t have the immediate feedback, those measurements, the VBT provides.”

Asked if it was a challenge to implement VBT at Brown, O’Neall replied, “Our athletes are smart. They know that speed of movement is critical—it’s not just how much you can lift. You tell them how to utilize VBT, adjust their rep scheme based on the parameters we provide, and they do it.”

Squats and bench presses are among the most popular lifts performed with VBT units, but O’Neall expanded his VBT toolbox by using it with static and countermovement hex bar jumps. The hex bar is more stable than dumbbells (and the dumbbells tend to bang against the thighs, causing bruising) and provide a better anchor for the VBT ripcord. It’s a good idea.

Squats and bench presses are among the most popular lifts performed with VBT units, but O’Neall expanded his VBT toolbox by using it with static and countermovement hex bar jumps. Share on X

While you can use the VBT training unit alone, such as when performing a squat to get feedback about bar speed, O’Neall says his coaching staff has used it in combination with other technologies. For example, a volleyball player would perform a hex bar deadlift and immediately test their vertical jump on a force platform. This type of contrast training stimulates more fast-twitch muscle fibers to be recruited on the jump (through post-tetanic potentiation). It also provides the athlete with another feedback loop to determine if the weight should be increased or decreased on the next set.

One unique use of VBT at Brown is testing when the athletes return from summer or winter break. Coaches often perform max testing to see if their athletes have been training, giving insight into who is serious about making the team. This approach may add injury to insult, as those who have not been training hard may be at a greater risk of getting hurt with 1-rep max testing. Rather than maxing, O’Neall uses a submaximal percentage of their athlete’s max for squats and bench presses, so they are less likely to injure themselves but test their best results in bar velocity.

“Some athletes may not have access to good training facilities during their break. That’s unfortunate, but I don’t want to put them in a position where they are further behind physically with an injury or mentally by embarrassing them with 1-rep max testing,” says O’Neall. “I’m not here to bring the wrath of Hell upon these athletes on their first day back—I want to provide them with an atmosphere they are excited to be a part of. Yes, they don’t always enjoy all the hard work we put them through, but they reap the benefits of what we have them do and become excited about their progress.”

Finally, O’Neall uses VBT to determine physical preparedness before and after competitions, particularly with football players. “If someone is moving a weight really fast, let’s load them up! If they are moving slower than normal, we back off. In a football game, one athlete may take 60 snaps and the other only 10, but both played that day. We play on Saturday and lift on Sunday, and VBT can help us determine the optimal weights to use based on their fatigue level.”

Other strength coaches may do more or less than O’Neall does with VBT technology, but all have relied on the work of the Iron Game pioneers recognized here. Further, VBT units have progressed beyond the ripcord methods that attach to a barbell to three-dimensional, wireless technologies that are more user-friendly. It’s an exciting time to be a strength coach!

Weightlifting textbooks from the Eastern Bloc mentioned in this article are available through sportivnypress.com. Books by Dr. Mel Siff and Yuri Verkhoshansky are available through Amazon.com.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, van Borselen F, et al. “Performance decrements with high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1994;26(9), 1165–1173.

Garhammer J. “Power Production by Olympic Weightlifters.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1980;12(1):54–60.

Hatfield F. “Getting the Most from Your Reps.” NSCA Journal. 1982;4(5):28–29.

Jones K, Hunter G, Fleisig G, Escamilla R, and Lemak L. “The Effects of Compensatory Acceleration on Upper Body Strength and Power.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 1996;10(4):287.

King IJ. How to Write Strength Training Programs: A Practical Guide. 1998, King Sports International.

Randell AD, Cronin JB, Keogh JW, Gill ND, and Pedersen MC. “Effect of instantaneous performance feedback during six weeks of velocity-based resistance training on sport-specific performance tests.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2011;25:87–93.

Takano B. Weightlifting Programming: A Winning Coach’s Guide. 2012; pp. 54–59. Catalyst Athletics, Inc.

Weakley JJS, Till K, Read DB, et al. “Jump Training in Rugby Union Players: Barbell or Hexagonal Bar?” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2021;35(3):754–761.

Injuries are much more than just damage to the body: the cascade of disruptions extends far beyond the field of play and can reach into many facets of life. For many athletes, being injured not only means they’re off the field, but it can also threaten their sense of meaning and personal identity, social network, general life rhythms, and in some cases, even financial stability.

Breathing strategies are not just a great way to enhance the direct rehabilitative outcomes desired during return to play (RTP), but they also can help athletes regain a sense of control and emotional stability while they surmount the many challenges that can accompany unplanned time off from training or play. Due to the central placement of breathing in human psychophysiology, thoughtful use of breathing strategies can help athletes in a holistic way that can enhance the RTP journey across the board.

Because breathing is a nearly universally implementable strategy, it can be deployed with success both inside and outside of standard training and play environments. Share on X

Because breathing is a nearly universally implementable strategy, it can be deployed with success both inside and outside of standard training and play environments. There are opportunities inside more formal environments like training facilities or clinics where breathing exercises can be used for pain relief during treatment or as an efficient way for athletes to stay in shape. Additionally, athletes can use takeaway protocols outside these formal spaces to enhance sleep and recovery or manage pain.

This article will discuss some of the simplest ways to positively impact the return to play experience as well as offer insight for coaches, athletic trainers, and therapists who may be helping to guide the healing process.

State and Stress Management – A Holistic Effect

As an athlete thinketh, so shall they be. Managing the internal state of mind during return to play is no small part of the picture. Injury and the attached mental and emotional stress can test our stress management skillset. As coaches, we often chirp about mindset and attitude, but what tools can we offer our athletes when they are at their lowest?

Discussing concepts like attitude, mindset, and resilience with our athletes is important in general but especially during RTP. Due to the fluid and fleeting nature of how we think and feel, it can be challenging to anchor onto and create a palpable change. A distinct advantage of using breath practices during return to play is that it turns the challenge of modulating internal dialogue into a physical skill. This gets the athlete out of their head and into their body.

Using breath practices during return to play turns the challenge of modulating internal dialogue into a physical skill. This gets the athlete out of their head and into their body. Share on X

In addition to the obvious physical healing process for the injured athlete, the application of breathing techniques during return to play doesn’t just plug holes in the proverbial dam; it can also be an opportunity to examine and bolster shortcomings in their mindset. Breathing techniques can play an indispensable role in this process. The development of enhanced carbon dioxide tolerance, for example, has direct implications for bolstering general resilience due to its effect on deep autonomic physiology.

Of course, the athlete and their team must generalize these lessons to both the return to play process and the chosen field of play. With that said, there is robust research that supports not just the reduction of anxiety (a serious issue in RTP) but, more essentially, the enhancement of overall mental resilience.

Practical Application

There are multiple protocols in the course of this article that are multipurpose in their deployment. For the sake of brevity, I’ll mention two of the techniques described in more detail later in this article and how you can implement them for general stress management and readiness.

These two types of breathing do not serve every athlete with 100% efficacy, but they cover the bases for most and can be deployed without concern of doing harm.

Athletes having trouble managing stress can use either of these two protocols to bookend their day. Five minutes in the morning upon waking and five minutes before bed isn’t too big of an ask and generally gets the job done. Additionally, they can be used to keep the stress bucket from overflowing as needed throughout the day. Even a minute or two can turn the tides of a bad day. Using metrics like heart rate variability and resting heart rate for autonomic tone as well as emotional reactivity can be helpful in better understanding acute changes and trends as a result of using these breathing strategies.

It’ll take a bit of experimentation to get it just right, so be sure to listen to individual responses. If an athlete reports that one protocol works better for them than the other, heed the call. You wouldn’t drive off a cliff just because Tom says to turn right, so don’t get stuck in sunk costs here, either.

Pain Management

Pain is one of the most authentic experiences we can have, and when we are having it, most of our attention goes toward making it stop. Thinking about pain a bit more clearly can help us not only make sense of the entire injury experience but also deploy pain relief and recuperative strategies more effectively.

Having an accessible and reliable tool like breathing at their disposal means athletes in the RTP process feel an enhanced sense of control over their experience of that process. Additionally, other pain management strategies can be costly in time and money. Some, especially pharmacological interventions, may come with a host of side effects that then need to be dealt with on top of the original issue. Breathing strategies are zero cost and have the side benefits of a more balanced nervous system and improved mental state.

Having an accessible and reliable tool like breathing at their disposal means athletes in the RTP process feel an enhanced sense of control over their experience of that process. Share on X

There are two main components to how breathing can reduce the pain experience for the athlete. The first is to normalize hyper-aroused states of the nervous system, which we covered in the previous section on state and stress management. Heightened sympathetic activity, especially in the form of anxious dread (heightened negative emotion about what might happen), has been shown to exacerbate pain responses. It’s been demonstrated, for example, that burn victims anticipating the sting of treatment were more sensitive to pain, but a slow breathing protocol prior to treatment reduced their anxiety (arousal) and made them more receptive to the intervention.

This logic can be used for relief in athletes experiencing anxiety related to the pain or discomfort associated with therapeutic interventions or movement protocols. Reduction in the fear response will calm some of the body’s protective mechanisms and can help with improved integration.

It can be challenging to separate the effects of breathing on general relaxation from pain relief. However, some studies have shown that slow breathing does have a measurable and significant effect on pain reduction, specifically. The precision with which protocols can be separated from one another and their subsequent outcomes relies mostly on contextual cues from both athlete and practitioner. With that said, if any tool creates a reduced pain experience and enhances the efficacy of RTP protocols to no negative net effect on the athlete, by all means, we should use it.

The majority of the research work on this topic has been on slow deep-breathing techniques. However, I would be remiss if I failed to mention promising avenues that use purposeful acute hyperventilation techniques, also called superventilation, that have potential in pain relief as well. Techniques in this category, like the very popular Wim Hof Method, have been shown to release adrenaline into the body during their use. During these states of purposefully increased arousal, pain signals can be suppressed. There are two significant downsides, however.

1. There can be underlying conditions that these kinds of techniques can exacerbate to dangerous effect (anxiety and panic disorders, for example).
2. Superventilation techniques can present a kind of false ceiling for tolerance in the RTP environment and, as a result, contribute to distorted awareness on the part of the athlete.

A preponderance of studies tells us that achieving six breaths per minute (one breath every 10 seconds) for about five minutes can reduce the sympathetic drive for most people. With that said, there are a few ways to skin this cat, and athletes can respond differently to the application of these protocols.

Here are a few that athletes can try immediately before RTP-based sessions or in the morning before coming to practice/therapy.

Box Breathing

Box breathing is an equal ratio of inhale:pause:exhale:pause. So, to achieve six breaths per minute or less, we would do 3:3:3:3. Technically, this is five breaths per minute, but you get the point.

Resonance Breathing

I mentioned this one in my previous article about breathing for recovery, and it applies quite nicely here too. Resonance breathing synchronizes the heart and lungs together to achieve a sort of neurological “tuning”—hence, resonance. It’s also easy to do and remember.

Simply repeat the below sequence for the allotted time:

• Inhale for three seconds.
• Pause for two seconds.
• Exhale for five seconds.

**Note: Athletes who have underlying anxiety may not like prolonged breathing phases. It’s best to let the athlete determine which of the protocols works best for them based on how they feel as long as they’re getting about six breaths/minute.

Improved Recovery

Along the same axis as state management are the improved recovery benefits of breathing techniques during return to play. Recovery is always an essential focus during training and competition, but it moves from coach to first-class seats during RTP. Specific breath training used both immediately before and/or after therapeutic inputs can go a long way toward enhancing recovery from the stress of rebuilding. Therapy places the athlete in structurally and neurologically vulnerable positions, and breathing strategies can help the body return to a more parasympathetic state so more complete healing can occur.

Therapy places the athlete in structurally and neurologically vulnerable positions; breathing strategies can help the body return to a more parasympathetic state so more complete healing can occur. Share on X

Practical Application

Pre Session

Breathing techniques deployed pre-session can help an athlete find a state of autonomic equilibrium, especially if they tend to be anxious about the session in general or anticipate unwanted pain and discomfort.

As a general rule, preparing somebody for work by having them lie down and do something relaxing can be self-defeating, but in this case, it’s necessary. The following protocol can be used for two to three minutes to quell the demons and get the athlete into a more receptive state of mind.

Simply instruct the athlete to:

• Sit comfortably with support as needed.
• Breathe using slow, controlled nasal breaths.
• Find a sweet spot where the exhale is slightly longer than the inhale. (This may take a few breaths.)

I purposefully did not provide a numbered protocol here because this is an opportunity for the athlete to learn to tune their own system. If they come into the session a little too amped up, and the protocol delivered right before doesn’t mesh with their internal mechanisms, it can be aversive and potentially exacerbate their attitude toward the session and breathing techniques as well.

Post Session

After the training/therapy session is over, there’s a bit more leeway. If the session was particularly challenging, have them relax in a comfortable position and use a 3:2:5 (inhale:pause:exhale) for three to five minutes. This use of resonance breathing helps harmonize the autonomic nervous system. Additionally, you can amplify the effects by having the athlete body scan during breathing. If they find a place where they’re holding tension, they can gently squeeze and relax the area during the two-second pause.

Before Bed

Athletes who sleep better recover better—period. However, pain and positional sensitivity can disrupt sleep for athletes in RTP and potentially interfere with ideal healing. Performing slow and controlled nasal breathing in bed (without a screen!) can help slow the car down on the way to the intersection rather than just slamming on the brakes. This will set the nervous system up for a successful transition to sleep. As a bonus, athletes who wake from discomfort overnight can also use this as a go-to for helping them get back to sleep or at least suffer less from sleep anxiety.

There are lots of options here. It’s up to you as the practitioner to listen to the needs of the athletes in your care and deploy the solution you feel best solves the problems you and your athlete face—and what’s more, the one the athlete will actually do!

Use During Therapeutic Intervention

Biology has two prime directives: survive and replicate. In that vein, the job of your nervous system is first and foremost to protect—to protect you from outside harm and to protect you from, well, you. It’s obvious when you say it out loud, but many rehabilitative strategies fail to take this first principle into account and, consequently, get limited results or contribute to other surreptitious compensatory processes.

Breath constraints during the application of movement rehabilitation techniques or skillset reintroduction give practitioners direct insight into how the nervous system receives the prescribed inputs in real time. Remaining ignorant of these subtle hints won’t necessarily interfere with achieving results altogether, but it can certainly limit efficacy and precision.

The opportunity to have a deeper dialogue with the athlete about how their body is adapting to the inputs is not to be scoffed at. The perception of high performers regarding both their interpretation of discomfort and personal readiness is often skewed. Hurry up and get back to normal so “I can be me” is a common sentiment that builds a house of cards ready to collapse at the next breeze.

Slow nasal breathing with good breath mechanics is a great indicator light for practitioners and offers athletes a way to self-regulate during especially challenging tasks during return to play. Share on X

Slow nasal breathing with good breath mechanics is a great indicator light for practitioners. At the same time, it offers athletes a way to self-regulate during especially challenging tasks during return to play. This time can be especially frustrating for athletes, and providing a goalpost is conducive to a more robust healing outcome. This keeps athletes from taking a “task completion” attitude toward the process. Along with that, it’s important to educate them as to why they are breathing this way. Hold them to the standard, and don’t let them skate!

Practical Application

A slow, smooth, and full nasal breath is a beautiful force multiplier in RTP for athletes and coaches and a good place to start when applying therapeutic inputs. Asking an athlete to maintain purposeful breathing keeps the autonomic nervous system from going into overdrive. This can mean more meaningful results during the session because the nervous system feels safe.

More often than not, when targeting especially challenged tissues or ranges, athletes grind through the exercise from one breath hold to another. These apneic events are a clear sign from your nervous system. Back off half a step and be a little nicer. Effort is good, but precision is better.

In some instances where novel or especially challenging interventions are being used, there can be cause for purposeful exhalation from the mouth. You should pay attention to cringing, gasping, wheezing, huffing, puffing, panting, or otherwise involuntary adverse reactions to the stimuli and generally avoid them. Return to play is not an outlet for the prowling sadism of coaches or therapists. Be precise and do no harm.

Deviations from these standards don’t necessarily mean you need to jump ship on the RTP approach you’re employing, but it does allow for a more precise reconciliation of the neurological message of “don’t do that” and intelligently pushing thresholds. There are some obvious cases where you’re dancing on the edge of what the athlete can manage in the moment. In those cases, deliberate exhales through the mouth can be particularly helpful in modulating arousal responses that exacerbate pain, avoidance, and compensation.

The key word in the previous sentence is deliberate. Deliberate activation of breathing muscles lights up a higher part of the brain and keeps the athlete in an attentive response state rather than a reactive one.

During high challenge/pain potential, use slow, smooth nasal breathing as much as possible. Unconscious deviation during execution shows a change in neurological tolerance. When dancing on thresholds of progress, deliberate exhalation can help manage the pain response in real time.

When dancing on thresholds of progress, deliberate exhalation can help manage the pain response in real time. Share on X

Simple Simon

All of this is not to say that if you don’t integrate breathing strategies, you won’t get results from RTP. We know that’s not the case. But using these strategies thoughtfully, you can get more precise indications of protocol success, at least neurologically, and therefore be more precise with your outcomes.

There are many opportunities to integrate breathing techniques into return to play processes. You don’t have to and may never use them all. Keep it simple, Simon. Find what works for your style of coaching/rehab and dovetail the tools appropriately. Regardless of where and when you integrate breath control into your RTP approach, it’s most certainly a powerful force multiplier that will enhance your existing toolkit and enrich the athlete’s experience.

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Resources

Jafari H, Gholamrezaei A, Franssen M, et al. “Can Slow Deep Breathing Reduce Pain? An Experimental Study Exploring Mechanisms.” The Journal of Pain. 2020;21(9–10):1018–1030.

Busch V, Magerl W, Kern U, Haas J, Hajak G, and Eichhammer P. “The effect of deep and slow breathing on pain perception, autonomic activity, and mood processing—an experimental study.” Pain Medicine. 2012;13(2):215–228.