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In 2001: A Space Odyssey, a film released in 1968, astronauts on a spacecraft are able to call on HAL to assist them in their mission. HAL (which stands for Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic computer) is a sentient computer able to utilize artificial intelligence (AI) to carry out a variety of tasks. The crew considers HAL a dependable member of the crew, at least initially, as it can carry out a variety of tasks—including playing chess. Over the following years, AI was depicted in science fiction films in various ways, including R2-D2 and C-3PO in the Star Wars films, the various agents in the Matrix trilogy, and WALL-E.

While science fiction writers have long utilized intelligent nonhumans in their storytelling, it’s only in the last 50 or so years that AI has been within the grasp of use for humans in general. AI is commonly defined as machine behavior that would be considered intelligent if exhibited by humans, and it was initially developed as a series of “if, then” rules on what were, at the time, ground-breaking supercomputers.

Since then, AI has grown across a variety of subfields, moving from these simple initial rules to fields such as computer vision (where the machine can “see” and track various objects), machine learning, and deep learning. Alongside this enhanced AI and computing power, the concept of “Big Data” has developed, whereby vast amounts of data can be collected, processed, and analyzed to create information. In essence, as highlighted by a recent PwC executive report, we can view AI as technology that has the ability to learn, take in information, and respond appropriately.

These various subfields of AI usage have found utility across a wide range of industries, including medicine, technology (such as driverless cars), business, and the military. Many of us use AI multiple times a day, with virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa or even just predictive text on our smartphones.

Never a field to lag too far behind various innovations, sport is increasingly using AI across a wide range of areas, including elite sport, says @craig100m. Share on X

Never a field to lag too far behind various innovations, sport is increasingly using AI across a wide range of areas, including elite sport, officiating (such as the Virtual Assistant Referee in football), journalism, sports medicine, and even sports betting. AI has also been used to provide a virtual competitor, perhaps most famously in the case of IBM’s Deep Blue. This chess-playing machine famously defeated the chess grandmaster Gary Kasparov in 1997 after losing an initial match in 1996.

Current Uses for AI In Elite Sports Performance

Specifically in the field of high-performance sport, AI has been used to assist in aspects such as:

• Performance analysis.
• Injury risk assessment and management.
• Scouting.
• Training outcome prediction.
• Performance prediction.
• Decision-making.

While still relatively new to high-performance sport, over the last 20 years, AI usage has grown. A recent review, published in Frontiers in Sport and Active Living and authored by a group of researchers from Germany (led by Fabian Hammes), paints an interesting picture of how AI is used at the highest level within sport. The researchers identified 540 studies that examined the topic, with football (soccer) being the sport most likely to utilize AI. This is perhaps unsurprising. Football clubs, especially in Europe but increasingly in Asia and the Middle East, have large budgets. For example, in 2021, Manchester United’s operating budget was US $745 million—a sum significantly larger than most Olympic sports receive across a whole Olympic cycle.

Alongside soccer, other sports with the greatest AI research base are cycling, tennis, and basketball—all sports with a broad appeal at the elite and community levels, says @craig100m. Share on X

These increased budgets (as well as their reputations) give clubs the capacity to bring in experts with the knowledge and ability to develop effective AI systems and processes. As an example, Arsenal was famously able to hire a data scientist who had previously worked on developing the popular game Candy Crush. Alongside football, other sports with the greatest AI research base are cycling, tennis, and basketball—all sports with a broad appeal at both the elite and community levels.

In their study, Hammes and his colleagues identified four critical areas in which AI is currently being utilized in elite sport:

1. Machine Perception: This involves AI technologies being utilized for image recognition and computer vision purposes. These technology types have the potential to assist in understanding performance—both more rapidly and more deeply—then, in turn, quickly provide this feedback to the athlete and coach as a means of supporting performance. As an example, it is now possible to set up a static camera that views the whole of the long jump runway and use this in competition to provide key pieces of data to athlete and coach, including runway speed, takeoff angle, etc.

This then allows for almost real-time in-competition changes to be made by the athlete, hopefully improving their performance. In team sports, similar technologies are often used to track player positions and distances covered, allowing the coaching team to quantify what is happening. Finally, technologies such as Hawkeye utilize machine perception to determine whether a ball was out (in tennis) or a bowled ball in cricket would have hit the stumps.

2. 2. Machine Learning and Modeling: Recent developments in AI have also allowed for models to be developed that can utilize large amounts of data to learn patterns, an approach typically termed “deep modeling.” This approach can be used to identify aspects that perhaps don’t seem obvious at first sight and has been used to predict the outcome of competitions, identify sports injury risk, model training response, and optimize talent development.

 

2. 2. Planning and Optimization: Building on the use of machine learning models detailed above, AI technology can also assist in sports planning. This can include planning various training processes (e.g., periodization), as well as schedule optimization.

 

2. Interaction and Intervention: This aspect of AI usage in elite sport relates to technology that provides athletes with feedback as a means of improving their performance. This can be wearables (including smart clothing and smartwatches) and both virtual and augmented reality technologies—something I’ve written about before.

Overall, the results from the Hammes and colleagues’ study demonstrate an increased interest in the use of AI in elite sport—something I’m sure we can all attest to through experience. A second paper in Applied Sciences highlighted the increase in research interest in using AI in exercise training, going from two studies in 2006 to 22 studies published in 2019 alone. As such, it’s clear that the use of, and interest in, AI in elite sport is on the rise.

Future Applications for AI and Sports Performance

While the use of AI in elite sport is certainly growing, there are even greater avenues of opportunity for the future. Beyond the obvious aspects that require improvements—including increased validity, reliability, and usability, along with reductions in both costs and complexity—AI could revolutionize other aspects of elite sports performance.

One area of increased potential is that of wearable devices. Wearables such as wristwatches (for example, an Apple Watch) provide data; this data is then utilized to quantify aspects such as training load and physiological stress, providing key insights. This can be useful as an overall training monitoring tool but may be even more helpful in aspects such as sports injury rehabilitation, where overall load—or even load on a specific body area—needs to be carefully managed.

Wearables can also assist in quantifying body position, which in turn assists with things such as biomechanical analysis and the position of the athlete on the field of play, which can aid with performance analysis aspects such as quantifying tactical behavior. For wearables to become increasingly adopted in elite sport settings, they will need to be cost-effective, comfortable, easy to use, and able to collect valid and reliable data—all aspects that are currently a challenge.

Another major opportunity for the use of AI in elite sport is through its ability to make the vast swaths of data regularly collected in high-performance sport settings actually usable. Some of the data routinely collected in elite sport include wellness and well-being markers, competition performance and performance variables, various “key performance indicators”—such as physiological, biomechanical, psychological, and tactical markers of success—and other metrics, including climatic conditions.

A major opportunity for the use of AI in elite sport is through its ability to make the vast swaths of data regularly collected in high-performance sport settings actually usable, says @craig100m. Share on X

Such disparate data sources can be difficult to analyze, particularly in relation to each other, making the gathering of meaningful insights challenging. Added to this, AI technologies, such as video machine learning and pose estimation, further increase the size and type of data that can be collected; as technology in other areas develops, even further aspects could be added. For example, if genetic testing can increase its overall validity, it may become more commonplace in guiding training program design and identifying injury risk.

As a result, decision-makers in elite sport—which includes the coach—will have a plethora of data available to them.

The opportunity here is to make the collected data useful, something that can be driven by AI-supported technologies such as data mining techniques. AI-supported machine learning models can then analyze this data, allowing for more effective utilization of the data collected on a regular basis. In addition, such advanced statistical techniques will enable us to understand whether any data that is gathered is not useful, helping data collection to become more refined and targeted in the future.

This is a somewhat similar approach to that of precision medicine. Here, different data sources are analyzed to create more precise—and, in some cases, individualized—treatment regimes. For example, in 2018, a group of researchers utilized whole genome testing, along with a machine learning program, to identify individuals with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. To do this, they utilized 6.6 million data points per individual from over 120,000 participants. This is a staggeringly large amount of data, and such analysis would not have been possible without the assistance of AI. However, similar breakthroughs in elite sport should allow for a movement from the basic collection of data and information—the lower levels of the wisdom hierarchy—toward true wisdom.

Practical and Ethical Challenges for AI and Sports

There are, however, some barriers to the effective implementation of AI in elite sport. One such barrier is related to the last opportunity I mentioned: the use of data. Many of the potential AI-supported aspects that may enhance practice in elite sport either produce data that needs to be collected and/or stored or require a lot of data for analysis. This collection of multiple pieces of data can be subject to a variety of protections and ethical challenges, with many governments (state, federal, and international) developing legally binding frameworks and legislations that govern the collection, use, and storage of data.

An obvious example of this is the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation—commonly termed GDPR—which influences the data that organizations can collect, along with how they use and store it, with significant financial penalties possible in the case of a data breach. Along a similar vein, a recent report from the Australian Academy of Science highlighted that in many professional team sports, sufficient thought and appreciation are not given to the risk-reward ratio of the data collected and how this might negatively affect an athlete.

A further example of this is the collection of genetic information. On the surface, such an approach is attractive: our genes play a large role in determining who we are, so better understanding them should assist in guiding our approach to athlete development, particularly with regard to aspects such as future performance or training adaptation. However, the use of genetic testing and genetic information in elite sport is rife with ethical issues.

As an example, there is a common genetic variation in a gene that affects the development of collagen, a critical structural component of ligaments and tendons. Variation in this gene has been linked to an increased risk of injury. Is it ethical to use this information to select or deselect an athlete for a talent program? What is the burden on the organization for testing for this variant?

For instance, what further investigations are required if genetic screening uncovers a serious medical issue? Where would this data be stored, how secure is it, and who would have access? What happens if an athlete doesn’t consent to their genetic data being collected—can they actively be deselected on this basis? Can Under-18s even provide informed consent for the collection of their genetic information?

These questions all highlight some of the issues around data collection, the quality of which underpins the effectiveness of using any AI in elite sport.

The ethical and safety questions surrounding data collection, storage, and use may also impact the development of effective AI, says @craig100m. Share on X

The ethical and safety questions surrounding data collection, storage, and use may also impact the development of effective AI. To test that any data-oriented AI system is useful, it typically has to be “trained” to identify patterns on large data sets; this allows the AI (for example, a machine learning program) to determine which aspects of the data might serve as valid, reliable, and relevant predictors. To be effective, this requires large data sets; given the concerns discussed earlier, such large data sets may not be readily available. This causes a further issue; the limited number of available large-scale data sets are then used by multiple AI statistical models—which limits the “learning” capability of any given technology, along with issues around how generalizable such a model may be across domains.

A similar issue is that of “black box” algorithms (so called because the data goes in and an answer comes out, but we don’t know what happens in the middle) and the wider ethical and usability concerns of such models. Many data-oriented AI models utilize tools such as neural networks, which can be difficult to interpret and understand, especially for the typical lay sports scientists. If we’re unable to fully understand how learning models make their predictions, we can’t fully assess—at least not accurately—the outputs of such models.

The models also become highly prone to bias. This happens because data points can be labeled as predictive in such statistical models but may be non-causal in nature—the model then uses this data type to make predictions, becoming biased in the process. There are many examples of this, and interested readers should check out Cathy O’Neil’s excellent book Weapons of Math Destruction.

A real-world example of this is AI used within the justice system that uses race as a causal factor, leading the AI model to become biased against people of color. More benignly, an AI model trained to differentiate between wolves and dogs in photographs did so based on the color of the background; if the background was white (i.e., snow), the model labeled the animal a wolf. This is because most of the photographs of wolves it was trained on were taken in snowy environments; however, when the model was shown a photograph of a wolf with a non-snowy background, it labeled the wolf incorrectly as a dog. This issue can be further compounded when AI algorithms are proprietary, making a full and accurate assessment of their validity and bias challenging. These problems are not unique to elite sport and relate to the broader Explainable AI movement.

Other issues affecting the uptake of AI in elite sport include overall usability and cost. On the first issue, the key question for us to ask is, “Does AI technology actually provide useful outcomes in an efficient manner?” As an example, computer vision technology struggles if the focus of the image (e.g., a player or athlete) is obstructed in some way. This means that in busy competition situations—such as a soccer match with 22 players on the pitch—a large volume of data may become lost and unable to be analyzed. Even a relatively simple task, such as identifying the numbers on player’s kits (used for post-match analysis), could end up becoming so corrupted that it is essentially useless.

In sports where total spend is highly regulated—like in F1—the cost of AI technologies may limit their effective use, says @craig100m. Share on X

While cost is not typically an issue for elite teams in financially attractive sports (e.g., soccer, American football), it becomes an increasingly large issue for sports with smaller economies of scale (e.g., individual sports) and those from less economically developed nations. This, in turn, widens the gap between the haves and have-nots, skewing the playing field. In sports where total spend is highly regulated—like in F1—the cost of AI technologies may limit their effective use. This creates a further issue if organizations scrimp on the cost of adequate storage and security for the data they collect, creating further ethical challenges.

In their review article, Hammes and colleagues identify a further five key challenges around the use of AI in elite sport:

1. Challenges in data collection (e.g., is the data fed into the models both valid and reliable?)
2. Transferability of general AI research into the field of elite sport (e.g., how does new AI knowledge and technology become integrated into a relatively niche area?)
3. An overall discomfort with machines “making” decisions—especially important ones (e.g., how do we use the data from machine learning and other models in the correct context?)
4. Explainability of results (e.g., how do we explain the process used by the AI in coming up with the output?)
5. The robustness of predictive models (e.g., can we move away from the current ability of AI to explain what happens to actually predicting it—and what is an acceptable error rate?).

Finally, there is a well-founded and genuine concern about an over-reliance on data and technology in elite sport. These concerns are typically based on the following:

• A blanket utilization of new technology without consideration of the performance outcomes.
• An over-reliance on data at the expense of context and practitioner expertise.
• An inability to capture all relevant information harming the ability to make fully informed decisions.

Where Does This Leave Us?

It’s clear that the use of AI in elite sport has huge potential, with the technology having the ability to both increase the depth of information collected and make this information useful to assist in decision-making. However, as outlined in this article, several key hurdles—scientific, ethical, and practical—need to be overcome before AI can be fully integrated, with utility, into elite sport contexts. These include issues around reliability and validity with both hardware and software and ethical issues around data storage and the use of black-box algorithms.

AI technology has the ability to both increase the depth of information collected and make this information useful to assist in decision-making, says @craig100m. Share on X

Finally, the technology is currently quite costly (in terms of both purchase price and having staffing expertise to utilize it) and not currently able to live up to its potential (due to issues with, for example, video capture if part of the image is obscured). However, if—and likely when—these issues can be improved on, the potential use of AI in elite sport is large, as are the potential performance improvements, making it a worthwhile area for future exploration within elite sport.

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It’s amazing to think about how far the game of basketball has come since I transitioned from a player to a coach and trainer. It’s equally as amazing to look at the growth of the strength and conditioning industry in that same timeframe. As someone who operates in that “gray area” developing athletes both in the weight room and on the court, I view basketball development through a pretty unique lens.

I’ve written previously about this gray area and received some awesome feedback from coaches out there who view training the same way and, honestly, solid feedback from coaches who completely disagreed with my stance. These conversations led me to dig even deeper into my training philosophy and develop even more clarity around how I coach, program, and see movement.

Right now, I’m really into “deconstructing” sports movements and building them back up based on the precise physical qualities we can enhance through training.

Right now, I’m really into ‘deconstructing’ sports movements and building them back up based on the precise physical qualities we can enhance through training, says @JustinOchoa317. Share on X

The goal is not necessarily to mimic those sports movements under load, although sometimes it may appear that way. I won’t have athletes shooting medicine balls or trying to dunk while strapped to a VertiMax.

This is more about determining what actions lead to effective basketball movements and finding ways to enhance those actions with as much bang for the buck as possible. If we need to improve our defensive slide, how can we do that besides just performing the same poor defensive slides we already have? We may look at lateral strength and power. We may need to enhance hip internal and external rotation. And then, we can plug in lifts, drills, and exercises that enable us to enhance those qualities.

Likewise, if an athlete has a flat jump shot because their release point is low, we may uncover that their release point is low due to a lack of shoulder mobility. So it’s not that their form is bad; they just cannot physically replicate consistent shot form because of their lack of shoulder flexion. If we deconstruct that, we can potentially give them more access to a range of motion, strength in that range, and shot reps in that range, which could lead to a more consistent jumper with a release point that allows them to improve their shot trajectory.

I use those overly simplified examples because they revolve around the two most important skills of the game—defense and shooting. But the examples I want to cover here are based more on attack moves and different ways to create separation from a defender.

One of the core principles of training that I think we can all agree on is moving from general to specific and finding ways to progressively overload stress for the athlete in front of you based on where they are and what their goals are.

I throw that disclaimer out there just to set the record straight that this approach is most useful for advanced or specialized basketball athletes or individuals who plan to become one very soon. I don’t think this is the best plan for a 14-year-old first-year student who is probably in dire need of general strength, speed, and skill training.

So let’s break down three of the most basic and common basketball moves, analyzing the goal of the move, how the athlete can successfully achieve that goal, and what qualities we can train to help this process.

1. Jab Steps

The jab step is one of the most basic but effective options a ball handler can use out of a triple threat position, with or without a live dribble. It has several variations and progressions, but today we’ll look at a classic hard jab step.

If you want a master class on using an effective jab, most will agree that Carmelo Anthony is the gold standard for this move. Kobe Bryant and Deron Williams were also masters of this move.

The primary goal of a jab step is to do one or more of the following:

• Disrupt the rhythm of the defender.
• Cause your defender to get off balance.
• Relocate your defender.
• Set up your own predetermined countermove.

The jab creates the illusion of a potential drive in the direction of the jab, so the defender must react to that accordingly. And as an offensive player, you can read the defender and attack based on that.

Sometimes the defender will shift back, giving you space to shoot. The defender may shift to the direction of the jab, giving you space to drive opposite. The defender may shift late, giving you space to turn the jab into a true drive in that direction. The possibilities are truly endless in this game of chess, not to mention some of the additional moves an offensive player can add with pump fakes, eye fakes, and other misdirection options.

So, what are the elements of a great jab step? The key factor is the intent behind the move. The offensive player must sell the jab; it can’t be lazy or submaximal. It is crucial to make the jab step believable, meaning it looks like the offensive player is actually going to move their body through space in some way.

What are the elements of a great jab step? The key factor is the INTENT behind the move. The offensive player must sell the jab; it can’t be lazy or submaximal, says @JustinOchoa317. Share on X

Another critical factor is the angle or projection of the jab step, which can vary based on the situation. The angle of the jab will determine where the defense shifts or reacts, which is critical to the next read as a ball handler. It’s important for an offensive player to understand that their jab step must make sense geographically on the court. Jabbing to where the help defense is already set up or toward a straight-line drive out of bounds isn’t going to put pressure on the defensive player. It’s usually best to use angles that invade the defender’s space or sell a drive because this will cause the defender to reposition themselves, leaving the next read up to the ball handler.

Next, balance is a critical component to a great jab—this will help avoid travel violations, sell the move, and, most importantly, get to the next movement efficiently. Jabbing forcefully into one direction without the balance or strength to decelerate that momentum will make the subsequent move slow and delayed or cause the pivot foot to be inadvertently moved. Another component of balance to consider is that if an offensive player is going to shoot out of the jab fake, they must return to a balanced position for that shot to have any chance to go in.

Intent, angles, and balance are not the only components at play but are definitely the most important from a physical preparation aspect. We can enhance these in the weight room and our on-court training with athletes.

For intent, a lot of improvement can be made as the athlete’s basketball IQ increases. Physically, we can implement rotational training that requires the athlete to improve their ability to powerfully rotate, as well as the decelerative qualities needed to put the brakes on their rotational movement.

Two general movements I’ve had significant success with include a rotational med ball throw and a half-kneeling plate or band chop.

Video 1. Medicine ball throws with a rotational component are an excellent way to help athletes improve that propulsive aspect of rotating with max intent.

Video 2. Half-kneeling chops are great for doing the exact opposite. Whether done with a plate or a band, they allow the athlete to start to use the entire core system to decelerate some of those rotations, which we know is crucial for the athlete to ultimately stay on balance within the jab.

If we inch closer to the line of specificity, we can use some drills that are a little bit closer to those sport actions we see in a jab step. One of my favorites is this “walking throw” with the Tidal Tank.

Video 3. This incorporates elements of momentum moving in similar angles to a jab step but in a much more dynamic environment. The movement forces the athlete to now link their torso up with their footstrike to propel themselves in a new direction.

To go completely specific, we can start to use weighted balls to hit the exact jab step pattern on the court or use band tension to apply overspeed or resistance to the jab movement, then contrast those reps with moves on air or within a drill.

Video 4. Like contrast training in the weight room or during speed work, we can apply the same concept to the court.

Here are some great examples of various other contrast methods. We can incorporate these loaded movements to excite the central nervous system, then contrast those reps to get the ultimate intent and precise movement we want, and help the athlete feel what they have unlocked in the process.

2. Side Steps/Step Backs

Side steps and step backs are now an essential fundamental skill for a hooper to have. At one point, they were considered advanced or “fancy,” but they are undoubtedly a part of the game now that every single player needs to have access to. Being able to shoot out of a step back or side step is just as essential now as a catch and shoot, layup, or floater.

Being able to shoot out of a step back or side step is just as essential now as a catch and shoot, layup, or floater, says @JustinOchoa317. Share on X

It would be hard not to crown James Harden the “King of the Step Back,” but props are also due to players like Steph Curry, Luka Doncic, and Damian Lillard. Speaking of Damian Lillard, he would probably take the cake for the best side step in the NBA in today’s game, with players like Jayson Tatum and Brad Beal as other notable masters of their craft.

If you want to watch someone with both of these moves in their bag at the most elite level, look no further than the WNBA’s Arike Ogunbowale. She is one of the best scorers on the planet in basketball, period.

The primary goal of both a step back and a side step is to do one or more of the following:

• Create separation from the defender to get a clean look at a shot.
• Force the defender to contest the shot too early or too late.
• Relocate your defender or force them off balance (or sometimes fall).
• Set up your own predetermined countermove.

These moves work so well because they are rapid changes of direction that allow the ball handler to get into their shot quickly. The threat of a drive to the basket makes the step back lethal because many defenses are predicated on keeping ball handlers out of the paint. With shutting down paint touches being a high priority for defenses, drives can be turned into step-back jumpers to give the offensive player an extremely clean look at a high-percentage shot. Similarly, the side step uses misdirection concepts and alters the defense’s rhythm and/or timing to get into the shot. Side steps are usually more subtle and cover less ground but work equally as well because of the disruption they cause to a defender’s balance and ability to anticipate movement.

Since these are technically two separate moves that I’ve grouped together for the sake of this article, we will look at what generally makes an effective step back or side step. One of the biggest factors is the athlete’s ability to change direction, which, in this case, requires multiplanar strength and power. Driving downhill and turning that into a step back requires a great deal of linear deceleration and also single-leg power to be back to reaccelerate back into the shooting position. A side step can also be added to a step back for even more separation from the defender, adding another layer of change of direction.

Believe it or not, mobility is another essential ingredient to make a good side step or step back: athletes get into some crazy positions during these moves. Coaches would look at some of these positions and call them “bad” or “dangerous,” but they are just naturally occurring postures that the game of basketball requires.

Video 5. For teaching athletes change of direction, there are a million-and-one ways to get great results. From a general strength approach, I really like the use of eccentric-focused training. I am a big fan of the Exxentric kBox because we can get the benefits of overloaded eccentric and overspeed eccentrics, both of which have a great deal of transfer to the decelerative qualities needed.

Videos 6 and 7. I also use simple basics for general changes of direction, like multidirectional jumps, speed cuts, and sprints with controlled decelerations to a lunge.

To start bridging the gap toward sport-specific skill, we can use multidirectional rhythm bounds and rapid bound backs to get into the angles we typically see in the step-back or side-step moves.

Videos 8 and 9. Lateral bound with vertical jump and ViPR rhythm bounds.

Finally, to bring it all together in the most specific application, we can add resistance, instability, or overspeed elements. I like to tow athletes forward in a linear sprint dribble and really emphasize the decel, which then turns into resistance on the reacceleration into the step back.

Another contrast concept we can use with these moves is incorporating overcoming isometric holds in specific force vectors we want to enhance. Similar to the concept mentioned in the jab step series, we can use immovable objects as our anchor point to put maximal force into the ground and then recreate those footstrikes in the move to create massive separation and effectiveness of the move. Here’s an example of what that may look like in a training setting.

3. Hesitation Moves

For the third and final common basketball move I’ll deconstruct, we will look at a hesitation move: “the hesi.” When it comes to the hesi, I think of vintage Jamal Crawford. His ability to float the ball, relax, explode, and then attack out of the hesi is pure art. The beautiful part about the hesitation move is that it can be the move, but it can also be used to set up another move or series of moves.

The beautiful part about the hesitation move is that it can be THE move, but it can also be used to set up another move or series of moves, says @JustinOchoa317. Share on X

The hesitation move is so important and common to basketball players that it’s honestly sometimes an unconscious movement that occurs just as a part of the athlete reading the situation or trying to gather their own rhythm.

The primary goal of a hesitation move is to do one or more of the following:

• Force the defender to relax or misstep based on your position.
• Set yourself up for a subsequent move or series of moves.
• Regain your balance or rhythm as a ball handler without retreating from the defense.
• Change your pace or level of play, or allow the play to develop around you.

The hesitation is such an easy move to master because there is truly no wrong way to do it. Everyone will put their own sauce on it and make their own unique version within the principles or goals listed above.

The number one must-have piece of the puzzle when it comes to an effective hesitation move is having a change of pace. A hesitation move is named as such because it does exactly what it sounds like. While the ball handler hesitates or delays their next movement by floating the dribble, their defender also hesitates and often has to wait until the next move to know precisely what they need to react to. That is why it is so important not just to relax but also to reaccelerate rapidly for the most drastic change of pace possible. Here’s a great example of how we try to manage and quantify change of pace.

Another complementary part of a great hesi move is to change levels. Similar to a change of pace, this throws off the defender’s timing and ability to read the next move. Just like going from slow to fast is tough to defend, going from tall to low is equally difficult. And the best part is that slow to fast and tall to low usually go hand-in-hand. Tall is relaxed is slow. Low is accelerating is fast.

The underlying attributes that can enhance both of these things are ultimately rhythm and coordination. Hard to measure but very easy to see: both rhythm and coordination are very fun to incorporate into training.

Video 10. Sprint-relax-sprint run.

From a general approach, we can teach change of pace with sprint-relax-sprint runs, in which athletes do exactly what it sounds like—sprint 10 yards, jog 10 yards, and sprint 10 yards. This helps athletes learn how to turn it on when they need to step on the gas and how to control that speed when they need to dial it back a little bit, then turn it on again.

Video 11. Kettlebell rhythm switches.

Contract-relax rhythm drills are another great general approach. I don’t even have a name for these; they just are. Drills like these help athletes find their rhythm in an environment that forces them to contract and relax rapidly over and over under load.

Some more specific ways to get better at hesitations are to add an element of reaction to the move itself. I love to drill these into training with verbal cues such as commands, colors, numbers, or other words that indicate what the athlete needs to react to. We can have the athlete pull up into a jumper by using a hesitation move, but at the last second, call out a command like “drive” to make them drive instead. Or “blue” could be drive left, and “red” could be drive right. No command could mean shoot as planned. The possibilities are endless.

Videos 12 and 13. Adding verbal commands to hesitation moves.

Deconstructing moves is not just about the move itself but also about the residual effects of the training. As mentioned, I still believe that a progression from general to specific with progressive overload in various ways is a cornerstone for any program.

Deconstructing moves isn’t just about the move itself but also about the residual effects of the training, says @JustinOchoa317. Share on X

Improving the Whole

Nothing mentioned in this article is solely effective for the move itself. We covered components of general strength, general speed, mobility, posture, awareness, rhythm, and coordination—all of which I think every athlete can surely benefit from. These all pay dividends to the moves we want to enhance but also the development of the athlete.

The specificity comes into play to add more relevant context to the training and help the athlete connect the dots between training and live play.

Many coaches opt to keep the sport and the athletic development training for that sport separate, but I think the more we can blur those lines, the more we can uncover that there are incredible opportunities to help athletes reach new levels that we never thought were possible before. All it takes is an open mind, an eye for the game, and the imagination to experiment in search of constant improvement for your craft.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Strength and conditioning coaches are always on a crusade for the holy grail, and like the myth, it is impossible to find. Like most innovation, it starts with a problem that needs to be considered with a different thought process to find answers. Strength and conditioning coaches seek to prepare athletes for the demands of the game so that they can be robust and resilient and perform at higher levels than before. Although this mythical program that can be deemed “the greatest” in athletic development doesn’t necessarily exist for everyone’s circumstances, S&C coaches are getting closer to solving their inherent problems with preparing athletes for the demands of the game.

Football is played five months out of the year, which leads to a huge chunk of time spent working on general abilities in the off-season. There’s a notion that strength and conditioning work removed from sports training for half the year hinders the growth of the athlete and lessens the transfer of newfound abilities into game play. You don’t win games by having the strongest team; you win games by having the most skilled team. Players will have to abandon the ladder or four-cone box drill, and the question the S&C has to ask is whether they are ready for the completely reactive environment associated with field sports.

Unlike many field and court sports, football out of season traditionally has less skill development—specifically in the area of small-sided games and agility training methods. In this series of articles, I will introduce progressions and drills that aim at attacking the training void between general training and specific training as it pertains to American football.

Agility and small-sided games are two crucial components of sports training. Agility refers to the ability to change direction quickly and efficiently in response to the environment, while small-sided games are modified versions of traditional sports that involve fewer players and smaller playing areas. Incorporating both training concepts into an off-season program will decrease the shock that accompanies the chaos of play and lessen the chance of injury.

Small-Sided Games: The Game Teaches the Game

The sport of football has been using small-sided games for years to help develop specific skills of the game, and by football, I mean soccer. Small-sided games reduce the number of players or field size from normal game play, and American football uses SSG in practice with inside run, 7-on-7, and even tackling drills. The use of SSG does not have to end once the season is over—in the off-season, it is critical to continue the skill development that accompanies SSG exposure. Using reduced field space in evasion/tracking drills will allow players to focus on position and get them valuable reps in a scenario that occurs frequently in game play. We will go through the progression in a later article, but readers should know that it does not require a complicated process of drill progressions:

• Find a piece of the game that is common.
• Reduce the players to focus the attention of the active participants.
• Close down the field space to allow the players to work on specific skills.

By removing variables, players can really dial in on the specific techniques of the situation.

Video 1. Small-sided and reaction games in football training.

The Injury Issue

One of the greatest threats to the success of a team is injury. Injuries are an unfortunate part of the game, and there is no true way to completely prevent them outside of simply not playing. The S&C coach has to problem-solve injury trends and provide training that addresses the major issues accompanying the sport. While the term “injury prevention” is a fallacy, I truly do believe injury mitigation can be accomplished with the right training environment. Too often, we see a focus on general training leading up to the competitive season without the inclusion of full-speed, reactionary drills (SSG) and wonder why athletes get hurt in the first few practices of training camp.

Reaction and positioning go hand in hand, so to not bridge the gap between general and specific training is setting the athlete up for failure, says @CoachJoeyG. Share on X

Reaction and positioning go hand in hand, so to not bridge the gap between general and specific training is setting the athlete up for failure. In the research paper “Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries: Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies,” the authors stated “Control over the dynamic restraints, independent of the motor control level, can be considered to occur both in preparation and in response to external events. Preparatory actions occur on the identification of the beginning of an impending event or stimulus as well as its effects, whereas reactions occur in direct response to sensory detection of effects from the arrival of the event or stimuli.” This is where the importance of SSG in preparation for specific conditioning plays such a pivotal role in the mitigation of non-contact injuries.

Figure 1. A comparison of injuries in American collegiate football and club rugby. S&C coaches can get on the right path to mitigation by providing training modalities that address these problems. Data adapted from: Comparison of Injuries in American Collegiate Football and Club Rugby (sagepub.com)

Several other researchers have also spoken on this subject, pointing toward incorporating specific modalities like SSG in training. A study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research found that athletes who participated in small-sided games had better sprint performance and agility than those who did not. Another study published in the Journal of Sports Sciences found that small-sided games were more effective at improving aerobic fitness than traditional training methods.

Strength and conditioning coaches are trying to find a way to develop the energy systems in a specific way to increase capacity for the demands of the sport, which would lead to fewer injuries. Less fatigue present in continuous game play will lead to less chance of injuries, and research has shown that SSG can provide that better than traditional conditioning due to the locomotion demands and rest/work ratios. Furthermore, a study published in 2014 found that small-sided games were associated with a lower risk of injury than full-sided games. When athletes train in similar environments to game play, they are prepared for the demands of the game.

Components of Agility

General skills make up the foundation of great agility alongside increased peripheral vision and faster reaction times (OODA loop). Acceleration, deceleration, COD, and max velocity are the underlying attributes that help determine success in the open environment of play. With deficiencies in any of these areas, the chances of being elite diminish. It’s the price of admission, so to speak, because if you lack the general athleticism to keep up with the more athletically endowed players, reaction times can only make up so much ground. A skill is how well someone can perform a task; in the chaotic realm of sport, the task in football comes down to two simplified themes: to create space or close space depending on whether the player is on offense or defense.

If you are an offensive player, you are trying to create space; the counterpart to that is if you are on defense, you are trying to close space. The beauty of football is that offensive players can be defensive in plays, like an offensive lineman in a pass set.

The four general skills stated above allow this to happen more rapidly. Zatsiorsky stated, “an increase in sports performance, the time of motion decreased.” This is multifactorial and should demand the attention of the strength and conditioning coach to allocate time to building the general locomotion skills necessary to move faster while concurrently exposing athletes to reactive environments in a planned and progressive manner. It’s like learning how to say the alphabet before embarking on the journey of writing an essay—you want to make sure that you can spell the words properly and write the correct letters.

In a profession that preaches “slow cooking” athletes, we are too often quick to say that in the developmental stages, we should just let the athletes figure it out in play versus giving them clues first on how to figure out the complex task of faster game play. What’s wrong with an emphasis on both?

Videos 2 and 3. Speed and agility development in training.

Deceleration

One of the main catalysts for injury is not having the coordination or capacity to stop movement. S&C coaches train and prepare athletes for the demands of the sport while improving the underlying factors affecting faster sports motion. Deceleration, in particular, is the underpinning factor in greater change of direction and max velocity speeds, which are directly responsible for creating and closing space but also prevention of non-contact injuries.

Video 4. Training deceleration on the football field.

Dr. Damian Harper defines deceleration as: “[The] ability to proficiently reduce whole-body momentum, within the constraints, and in accordance with specific objectives of the task, while attenuating and distributing the forces associated with braking.”

Deceleration ability may be the biggest determining factor in performance when looking at general skills and their effect on sports, says @CoachJoeyG. Share on X

Deceleration ability may be the biggest determining factor in performance when looking at general skills and their effect on sports. In the research article “Change of Direction Tasks: Does the Eccentric Muscle Contraction Really Matter?,” Helmi Chaabene stated, “From a practical observation, suggest that coaches should consider implementing eccentric strengthening, which is the main muscle contraction regime activated during deceleration, in their training program directed at promoting COD outcome.” Not training or preparing for the high-intensity deceleration events in sport can lead to compensation mechanics or severe injury.

COD and the Four Main Pillars

Change of direction and agility are not the same! You can change direction without a stimulus, whereas agility is a change of direction brought on by an environmental cue. COD is one of the biggest determining factors in faster game play—the only sport that doesn’t have COD is track. A 10.5 time in the 100m is only useful on the football field if you can navigate defenders.

Increasing acceleration and max velocity output is extremely important but is not the end of the rainbow. The gold is getting these general skills to transfer to specific skills like tracking, closing, and evading, which have more components than just running fast. Change of direction is directly affected by another general skill: deceleration. As previously stated, what’s the point in speeding something up if we cannot slow it down? A skill gets better with rehearsal, so while increasing the contributing factors to speed, COD, and deceleration, strength and conditioning coaches also need to reinforce the biomechanical positions that are associated with advantageous change of direction movements.

When you break down the tape of game play, four distinctive change of direction movements stand out:

• 180-degree cut
• 90-degree cut
• 45-degree cut
• Maneuverability

These movements show up over and over again. In many situations, they change together. When you avoid training these positions, you remove the bridge between speed and game speed. Training these components of COD is learning the alphabet. It’s the old metaphor of learning to crawl before you run.

When you avoid training change of direction positions, you remove the bridge between speed and game speed, says @CoachJoeyG. Share on X

Videos 5 & 6. Training angled cuts and maneuverability.

OODA Loop

Game speed and OODA loops are two concepts that are important in sports training and competition. Game speed refers to an athlete’s ability to perform at the same speed and intensity as they would in a game or competition. This involves not only physical speed but also mental quickness and decision-making ability. When I see people train in closed drills or general skills the entire off-season without the presence of open reactive environments, my mind always goes to the Mike Tyson quote, “Everyone has a plan till they get hit.” Peripheral vision and pattern recognition are two of the main drivers of fast reaction times and increased OODA loop processing.

The OODA loop is a decision-making process coined by military strategist John Boyd. It stands for:

• Observe
• Orient
• Decide
• Act

In sports, athletes must constantly cycle through this process to make quick and effective decisions on the field. They must observe the situation, orient themselves to the environment and the actions of their opponents and teammates, decide on a course of action, and then act on that decision. Increased game speed hinges upon the ability to cycle through this loop and use the appropriate strategies from a movement standpoint. We have all coached that one kid who was fast as hell in testing, but for whatever reason, the game moved too fast for him, and he played slower than his capabilities. An athlete’s inability to discern the environment from potential threats slows down the “decide” and “act” portions of the loop, leading to what a lot of coaches have termed “paralysis by analysis.”

Coaches can incorporate the OODA loop into sports training by focusing on decision-making skills and situational awareness. You can create drills and exercises that require athletes to quickly observe and react to changing situations, forcing them to cycle rapidly through the OODA loop. Game speed training can include drills and exercises that simulate game situations and force athletes to react quickly and make split-second decisions.

These critical pieces of training—game speed and the OODA loop—are important concepts in creating a transfer from general skills to specific skills. Athletes who can perform at game speed and quickly cycle through the OODA loop are more likely to be successful on the field. It’s not the fastest athlete who wins; it’s the athlete who plays the fastest. Coaches and athletes should incorporate these concepts into their training and practice routines to improve their performance and decision-making abilities.

It’s not the fastest athlete who wins; it’s the athlete who plays the fastest, says @CoachJoeyG. Share on X

The OODA loop can also be linked to injury rates in sports. In high-speed and high-impact sports, such as football, athletes constantly make split-second decisions that can have a significant impact on their safety. Therefore, having a well-developed OODA loop is crucial for athletes to avoid injuries.

The OODA loop helps athletes quickly observe and orient themselves to their surroundings, make informed decisions, and act on those decisions with precision and control. By cycling through the OODA loop rapidly, athletes can make split-second decisions that can help them avoid collisions, adjust their movements to avoid injury, or protect themselves. Game speed and the OODA loop can also help athletes develop their adaptability and flexibility.

The game of football is chaos, and no play is identical. Having the ability to react to an ever-changing environment will give players a competitive advantage and protect them from bad positions that could lead to the risk of injury. By incorporating these concepts into training and practice routines, athletes can develop their decision-making abilities, mental toughness, resilience, and adaptability, all of which can contribute to their success on the field.

Having the ability to react to an ever-changing environment will give players a competitive advantage and protect them from bad positions that could lead to the risk of injury, says @CoachJoeyG. Share on X

In the next three articles, I will touch upon:

1. How GPS can help create specific thresholds and guide planning for SSG and agility to match practice stressors.
2. How to progress from closed COD drills and advance them into open reactive environments.
3. How to incorporate and plan these sessions into the training week.

Every coach wants faster game speed and a decreased chance of injury, and small-sided games can deliver. SSG and agility training, when paired with general skills and capacities training, can produce a robust athlete that is able to handle any situation with accuracy and precision.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

During the summer of 2021, I was scouring the internet, seeking alternatives to the “sleeper stretch” in order to better compel shoulder internal rotation (IR) in overhead athletes. While the sleeper stretch had garnered high praise from the overhead athlete and physical therapy community for decades—it’s often considered a staple movement within many baseball and shoulder rehabilitation programs—a handful of new alternatives to address shoulder IR inefficiencies have begun to gain steam in recent years. In large part thanks to the contributions of the Postural Restoration Institute (PRI), it was starting to become clear that the cause of poor shoulder IR might not even be a result of the shoulder itself.

At the time, I was interning under the guidance of renowned Philadelphia-area strength and conditioning coach and educator Rob Rabena (who will always have my gratitude), and he steered me toward Las Vegas physical therapist (PT) Zac Cupples. Rabena noted that Cupples would be able to clearly explain that it is the rib cage that forms the base for our shoulder girdle, and our shoulder motion can be profoundly influenced by altering dynamics within the rib cage. Thoroughly impressed by Cupples’ explanation, I began hastily consuming more and more of his content before ultimately joining his mentorship program in 2022.

During our conversation for this interview, Cupples revealed a bit of wisdom that I continue to reflect on and seek to implement on a daily basis. When I asked how we, as coaches, can continue to improve our craft (in addition to making our athletes better), he said:

“It starts with cultivating your relationships and assembling a team around you comprised of individuals who are predominantly smarter and more proficient than yourself. It may sound counterintuitive, but this will ensure you are continually being pushed to enhance your own skill set, which can prove challenging if you are the smartest person in the room. Multiple heads are better than one, and you can advance your coaching mastery more rapidly if you are constantly engaging with others [who are] always willing to help nudge you in the right direction.”

(Improving your coaching) starts with cultivating your relationships and assembling a team comprised of individuals who are predominately smarter and more proficient than yourself, says @ZCupples. Share on X

Cupples graduated from St. Ambrose University’s Doctor of Physical Therapy program in 2011 and then went on to obtain both his Orthopedic Specialist Certification (OCS) and Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) certification in 2013. He has been a PT clinical director, continuing education reviewer, and National Basketball Association (NBA) PT and Assistant Strength Coach. Despite his highly regarded academic and industry accolades, if you ask Cupples what experience he valued the most, he will enthusiastically point to his time in Indianapolis, when he interned for the legendary Bill Hartman at IFAST University. As the Illinois native’s admiration for Hartman has grown over the years, in a similar vein, so too has my admiration for Cupples.

Prior to embarking on this journey with Cupples, I was completely oblivious to the idea of posterior expansion versus muscle compression, sacral nutation versus counternutation, and rib cage dynamics, let alone the varying axial skeleton archetypes. While Cupples was able to cast light on crucial industry topics I was otherwise unfamiliar with, it was (is) his ability to unscramble otherwise ambitious topics and present them in a digestible manner that proved to be his most helpful quality.

Cupples’ ability to unscramble otherwise ambitious topics and present them in a digestible manner proved to be his most helpful quality. Share on X

At the conclusion of our May mentorship call, I sought to glean from Cupples serviceable insight that coaches and/or athletes can directly apply:

• Programming considerations for sport athletes who present a narrow vs. wide infrasternal angle (ISA) predisposition.
• Deciding if it is appropriate to feed a speed athlete more compression or expansion strategies.
• How to navigate using heavy strength training to increase compression potential without limiting movement capabilities.
• Training sprinters in the weight room to ensure a proliferation of IR to maximize max propulsion.
• The benefit vs. potential hindrances of table tests.
• Why the “stack” proves necessary for all athletes and gym-goers alike to master.

Wide vs. Narrow Infrasternal Angles

In recent decades, due to the contributions of Hartman, Cupples, Ryan Maron, and a handful of others, coaches can better predict their athletes’ tendencies, compensatory strategies, and developmental needs based on their axial skeleton archetype. An axial skeleton archetype describes the shape of the individual’s spine, thorax, and pelvis. The two broad categories each of us fall into are a wide infrasternal angle and a narrow infrasternal angle.

A majority of Cupples’ recent clientele have consisted of rotational athletes, particularly golfers, for which he describes those who present as a wider frame having a structural build more conducive to force production, which can be identified during their golf swing, as they often turn more horizontally. By contrast, he explained, narrower-framed individuals are built more for rotation and flexibility, leading to a more vertical turn and swing.

“You could look at the ISA as a measure of how someone is built,” Cupples said. “Based on this, there are certain things that structure is more adept at doing than other things. From here, you can then make predictions about how one should present based on the body structure.”

In short, a wide ISA (usually wider than 90 degrees) is characteristic of an individual who has an exhaled, or compressive, biased axial skeleton. The wider anterior rib cage is how their body produces inhalation. Contrarily, a narrow ISA (usually less than 90 degrees) has a more inhaled, expanded/eccentric axial skeleton. The narrow anterior rib cage is how their body exhales.

As a coach, by identifying which ISA (a bony structure we are incapable of changing) our athlete best identifies with, we can better predict how their compensatory breathing strategies might influence their movement capabilities and the natural orientation of their axial skeleton. As a result, we will be in a better position to know which exercises to program and interventions to use to impact the athlete’s overall movement as necessary.

By identifying which ISA our athlete best identifies with, we can better predict how their compensatory breathing strategies might influence their movement capabilities. Share on X

For example, a wide ISA will generally bias in the following ways: “belly breather” with a diaphragm that is descended anteriorly and has difficulty expanding the posterior axial skeleton. From a more movement-based perspective, a wide ISA has a heavy internal rotation and force production bias. This is due to skeletal structure and a pelvis biased toward a state of sacral nutation, allowing for a greater amount of space to move horizontally.

With this, those having a wide ISA will often reveal themselves to be more proficient in movements that require tremendous IR. Exercise and movement examples where a wide ISA will likely be more proficient include:

• Deadlift (KG, BB, trap bar)
• DB and BB press
• Box squat
• Hip-dominant back squat
• Hip-dominant step-up
• RFESS
• RDL (BB, DB, and SL)

Conversely, one of the main reasons athletes with a wide ISA struggle to move vertically (such as during a squat) is because their ability to counter-nutate the sacrum will be limited, making it challenging to create external rotation, or ER (think the initial descent of a squat). However, this does not mean we cannot provide them with vertical squat movements and ER-dominant exercises to enhance their athletic capabilities. Examples to restore and/or promote verticality and ER in a wide ISA would include:

• Heels-elevated DB Zercher squat, goblet squat, and front squat
• Heels-elevated split squat
• Knee-dominant step-up
• Goblet lateral lunge
• Landmine press variations
• Alternating incline press

On the other hand, a narrow ISA will bias toward external rotation, force absorption, and vertical hip displacement and present with a more counternutation sacrum. Exercise and movement examples where a narrow ISA will likely demonstrate greater proficiency due to the ER requirements of these movements include:

• Vertical-biased squatting variations (goblet, SSB, front, overhead)
• Rotation capabilities
• Quad-dominant spit squat (vertical torso split squat)
• Landmine press

Meanwhile, if we want to gradually program exercises to drive IR and compression in an otherwise ER- and expansion-dominant individual, we could implement the following:

• Box squat
• SSB squat
• Bilateral hinge progression-DB RDL to KB deadlift to trap bar deadlift
• Floor press to DB press
• Kickstand RDL to SL RDL

Keep in mind, as Cupples has reminded me on numerous occasions, identifying a client’s ISA angle is an invaluable data point to aid in programming guidelines, but do not misidentify it as the be-all and end-all. (He has an elaborate and excellent encyclopedia on the varying ISA biases that can be found here.)

Creating Space

During recent mentorship calls, Cupples and I focused mainly on the idea of compression versus expansion strategies and identifying the athlete’s needs based on their limitations and sport of choice: an easy-to-digest example would be a powerlifter versus a contortionist.

As one might expect, a powerlifter needs to be able to compress (increase internal pressure) to move heavy weight from point A to point B, making them a prime candidate for compression-biased coaching strategies. However, as Cupples has articulated, a steady diet of too many compression-based movements (let’s use pressing as the example) can reduce overall motion. This may contribute to pain.

As such, a coach needs to identify how to promote compression to aid sporting movement while also using expansion-based strategies to ensure long-term health.

Keeping this in mind, we can flip the script and see how a contortionist would benefit from an elaborate exercise library of expansion movements to reaffirm their ability to maneuver in and out of various positions. This is because a contortionist primarily relies on their ability to create space (availability of movement options). While compression exercises should not be eliminated from a contortionist’s program, as a prerequisite amount of strength is vital to ensure prolonged stability, we can see that too much compression would reduce space and shrink movement choices.

Regardless of what sport the athlete competes in, it is essential to identify if the sport requires a demand bias toward compression, expansion, or a combination of both. Share on X

Regardless of what sport the athlete competes in, it is essential to identify if the sport requires a demand bias toward compression, expansion, or a combination of both (tennis, baseball, golf). A sprinter is an interesting case study due to the compression (propel force into the ground) and expansion (short ground contact) demands of the movement.

“If a sprinter works mostly in the sagittal plane, I try to increase available movement by working on rotations and the other motions they may lack,” Cupples told me, explaining that his responsibility as a coach is first and foremost to keep the athlete healthy, and that would entail, believe it or not, providing contrasting movements to sprint training.

By balancing out the amount of compression a sprinter produces on the track with expansion exercises in the weight room, a coach can restore adequate movement—which ideally would result in less pain and fewer injuries. Once that goal has been accomplished, Cupples believes the next step is choosing strategies and movements alternative to the sprint itself, where the athlete can effectively produce force. A handful of advantageous movements to drive posterior expansion for all athletes are as follows:

• Wall sit
• Bench posterior
• Seated posterior expansion with external rotation
• Wall posterior expansion with external rotation
• Dorsal rostral thoracic expansion with posterior hip stretch
• Low reaching sit

Video 1. Wall posterior expansion with external rotation. This will drive posterior expansion and shoulder external rotation and loosen up the upper back muscles. 

Video 2. Wall sit posterior expansion. This will drive posterior expansion, shoulder external rotation, and hip internal rotation.

Along similar lines, there remains a constant trade-off when it comes to weight training for field sport athletes. We can conceptualize it as follows: If I am committed to increasing my strength in the weight room, I need to learn how to raise my force production. Additionally, if I desire to raise my force production, I must create more pressure. To create more pressure, I need to reduce the number of options available.

Consequently—and here comes the trade-off—if I limit relative motion, the availability of movement options will decrease, and my potential to move effectively (rotate, shuffle, run forward and backward) will likely spoil. This proves to be quite the dilemma. As Cupples believes, the key with all training qualities is giving the person in front of you “enough.” Analogous to a diet, athletes are not required to consume whole foods 100% of the time to see results—there are elite performers who devour “dessert” every day.

“The way to determine what is enough is by measuring,” Cupples explains. “Ideally, you are looking at a cluster of performance indicators (joint motion, force testing, field performance, etc.) and then determining what the bottlenecks are that are limiting performance. From there, it’s a matter of addressing those bottlenecks until the next one rears its head. Test and retest.”

One of the performance indicators mentioned above is joint motion, which table tests have proven to be adequate in measuring. Table tests prove valuable because they provide a constrained way of examining an athlete’s movement capabilities.

“It’s hard to constrain dynamic movements as much,” Cupples says. “But when working with athletic populations, you’ll need to measure more variables than just range of motion, as there are more needs besides that. But what is nice is if you see table tests trend negatively over the course of a season, it can possibly be a canary in the coal mine for an issue.”

If you see table tests trend negatively over the course of a season, it can possibly be a canary in the coal mine for an issue, says @ZCupples. Share on X

One of the themes Cupples echoes constantly is that coaching is not linear or logical, nor does it always make sense on paper—as coaches, we need to adapt to each athlete’s needs, and the more tools in our toolbox, the more proficient we become at doing this.

Internal Rotation for Sprinting and the Stack

As we returned to the topic of sprinting, I sought to inquire about IR and its relationship to ground contact time and max propulsion. As Hartman once explained, a sprinter lands on their foot near, or right before, max propulsion, which in turn equates to the maximum amount of internal rotation (downward force) being propelled into the ground. Due to the stipulation that we need IR to produce force, it is not uncommon to observe sprinters presenting an anterior-oriented pelvis while leaning their chest and head forward in unison.

Having said that, a sprinter’s ground contact time needs to be purposely succinct to eliminate the elongation of the foot remaining on the ground (which would reduce speed). This then begs the question I posed to Cupples: What various dynamics can we use in the weight room to train our body to produce high levels of IR while reinforcing the need to be quick off the ground?

This first entails working on activities that encourage this rapid transition of force from the foot to the floor and back up again. This could be done by performing repeated jumps, band-assisted hop and stick, continuous hurdle jumps, and for advanced athletes, RRLL. Remember, we want to emphasize to the athlete not to “stick” the landing. Sprinting itself is still the best teacher, but these rapid weight room activities should not be neglected.

As we neared the end of our discussion, I gravitated away from speed-specific modalities and sought Cupples’ opinion on all things the “stack.” For those who are unaware, aside from Cupples’ classic wit, an extensive collection of brim hats, and loyal sidekick Ted, he is probably best known for his mantra, “If you can’t stack, you can’t talk to Zac.” One of the most underrated tools to improve performance, the stack is a movement strategy that involves stacking the thoracic diaphragm on top of the pelvis.

One of the most underrated tools to improve performance, the stack is a movement strategy that involves stacking the thoracic diaphragm on top of the pelvis. Share on X

“The stack is foundational for improving movement options,” Cupples said. “It allows for ‘normalizing’ the respiratory mechanism, giving you the potential to have all of your movement options available.”

This would allow for the greatest opportunity to maximize intraabdominal and intrathoracic pressure during movement. During the stack, when we take a breath of air, we should ideally see a multidirectional expansion in the rib cage.

This multidirectional expansion due to proper stacking should enhance relative motion among the ribs, allowing the ribs to separate to make room for an increased amount of air in the lungs while providing greater movement option potential. Keep in mind that the stack is not a posture we MUST hold; it is quite the opposite.

“It’s a movement strategy used to allow for multidirectional movement throughout the body,” Cupples said. “The end result is the appearance of a stacked body. There are several cues focused on (eyes, ground contact, breath, etc.) that can be applied in ALL movements.”

In pointing to sports as an example, he continued, “You need to look at where the play is happening. That’s using the eyes. When you cut, you must push off the foot a certain way to maximize the change of direction. You are ALWAYS breathing. The stack provides consistency within cueing and focus points, making a coach’s job easier over the long haul. The ribcage should expand in all directions during the stack, not migrate forward as a unit.”

For those unaware of how to go about coaching the stack, here is your best resource.

As I began this piece by sharing, it has always been my impression that the hallmark of a good coach, teacher, and educator lies in their ability to restructure otherwise rigorous topics and present them in a digestible form for their athletes and students to comprehend. I have found Cupples stellar in this regard, thanks to his use of numerous visual aids, multiple outside references, constant words of encouragement, impressive level of patience, and genuine sincerity. Just make sure you first learn how to stack, or you can’t talk to Zac.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

We all know the highly effective adaptations from eccentric training, but in practice, most coaches and athletes only measure and prescribe training on concentric metrics like 1RM. According to a scientific survey, only 42% of practitioners monitor eccentric load, and only 25% use eccentric-specific testing.¹

Nowadays, you can easily measure eccentric training and performance metrics with a velocity-based training device like GymAware RS and GymAware FLEX. Here’s why this is useful when prescribing training and monitoring performance.

Why Quantifying Eccentric Movements Is Important

Not all eccentric movements are the same, and each has its unique benefits.² If you’re chasing after a certain benefit, like hypertrophy, it’s important to accurately prescribe the eccentric exercise. Eccentric load, eccentric velocity, and eccentric time under tension are three important ingredients that determine your training adaptation.

Not all eccentric movements are the same, and each has its unique benefits. If you’re chasing after a certain benefit, it’s important to accurately prescribe the eccentric exercise, says @loekvossen. Share on X

If you want to measure your eccentric performance and track progress over time, it becomes even more important to have objective data. Here’s a list of eccentric metrics, provided by GymAware, that can help prescribe eccentric training and track eccentric performance over time:

• Eccentric peak and mean force and power
• Eccentric peak and mean velocity
• Eccentric time under tension
• Eccentric dip and bar path

Quantify Eccentric Load and Eccentric Force

The most straightforward way to quantify your eccentric load is by looking at the weight. Although this could work for a single individual, it’s impossible to create a systematic training approach based on weight simply because the difficulty of lowering 80 kilograms is not the same for me and you. In fact, even within an individual, weight alone doesn’t describe how challenging the exercise is.

During concentric movements, coaches try to solve this by creating training programs based on %1RM. This allows them to put weight into perspective. Eccentric movements don’t have such a one-repetition maximum because, per definition, you’re lowering the weight, no matter what the load is. For some, the lack of an eccentric 1RM is a reason to use the concentric 1RM to determine eccentric load. However, that would contradict the goal of this article: to quantify eccentric training with eccentric metrics.

It’s not just a matter of principle. Using the concentric 1RM to determine eccentric load is also not ideal since it assumes a fixed relationship between concentric and eccentric muscle performance. In more practical terms, it assumes that doing five eccentric reps at 120% of the concentric 1RM is the same difficulty for me as it is for you. If we have a different force-velocity profile, this may not be the case. Moreover, this method of using 1RM also implies that there are no significant day-to-day differences in 1RM that would otherwise affect the load.

Using the concentric 1RM to determine eccentric load is not ideal since it assumes a fixed relationship between concentric and eccentric muscle performance, says @loekvossen. Share on X

One eccentric metric that does allow you to quantify eccentric load is the eccentric movement velocity. Suppose you are lowering a weight that is so heavy you cannot lift it or hold it in place isometrically. For these kinds of eccentric movements, the higher the load, the faster you drop it—assuming you are always doing your best to slow down the process of lowering the weight.

This phenomenon is represented in the force-velocity curve. Note that for concentric movements, it’s the other way around: the higher the load, the lower the velocity.

If you and I have the same eccentric velocity in the above-described eccentric movement, you could say we train at the same relative load in the force-velocity curve. You can now use velocity zones to target a specific area of the force-velocity curve, similar to (though not exactly the same as) concentric velocity zones.

Moreover, measuring eccentric velocity instead of using concentric 1RM also solves the issue of daily variance. On a bad day, you’ll be using less weight to train at the same eccentric velocity. This works like an autoregulated system: the better you feel, the more weight plates you’ll be putting on your barbell to match the velocity target.

This way of training is called velocity-based training (VBT) and it requires a VBT device that measures not only the concentric but also the eccentric velocity of your movement, in real time. The GymAware RS and GymAware FLEX do exactly that.

When you combine one of these hardware devices with the additional GymAware Cloud software, you can go beyond mean and peak eccentric velocity with metrics like mean and peak eccentric force and power. I’ll talk about these metrics in a bit when we look more closely at quantifying eccentric performance progress.

But first…

Should You Use High Loads or Low Loads?

Now that we can quantify eccentric loads, should you be aiming for high or low loads?

Before we can answer this, we need to define “high” and “low.” In scientific literature, a high load is considered a load that you cannot lift concentrically. High loads will force you to lower the barbell. The eccentric force that you apply during those high-load movements is larger than the maximal concentric force. Several terms are related to this type of training:

• Eccentric overload
• Supramaximal eccentric loading
• Heavy negatives
• Accentuated eccentric loading

According to scientific research, high-load eccentric exercises induce greater increases in eccentric strength than low loads.² Even within these supramaximal loads (>1RM), greater increases in hypertrophy are found with heavier loads. Additionally, heavy eccentric training induces both qualitative and quantitative changes in the tendon, with heavier supramaximal loads increasing tendon force and stress more.²

In practice, this means that as long as you do your best to slow down the process of lowering the weight, high bar velocities (as a result of higher loads, explained earlier) result in superior training adaptations. However, to limit soreness, it is advised not to aim for eccentric durations shorter than two seconds.

There is one practical challenge with these supramaximal loads: how to lower an object that you cannot lift. You can use a spotter (or two), to help lift the weight in the concentric phase. Weight releasers can do the job too. Just like the two-movement technique, lift the weight via a compound exercise, and lower the weight with an isolated exercise (or lift a weight with two legs and lower it with one). I’m sure that coaches who read this are experienced enough to know which technique suits their athletes best.

Quantify Eccentric Velocity and Time Under Tension

We already talked about using eccentric velocity to quantify eccentric load during supramaximal exercises (>1RM). In these exercises, the velocity is a result rather than a choice, given that you do your best to slow down the process of lowering the weight.

Eccentric velocity itself—regardless of whether applied in submaximal or supramaximal loads—is an important metric to look for, says @loekvossen. Share on X

However, eccentric velocity itself—regardless of whether applied in submaximal or supramaximal loads—is an important metric to look at. For instance: a very slow supramaximal eccentric movement using isokinetic dynamometry results in different muscle adaptations compared to a fast supramaximal eccentric movement.

Additionally, a deliberately slow-paced submaximal eccentric movement, with the aim of extending the eccentric time under tension, is different from a deliberately accelerated supramaximal eccentric movement to decrease the eccentric force.

Both previously mentioned VBT devices (GymAware RS and GymAware FLEX) display real-time mean and peak velocity and eccentric time under tension. If you want to do slow eccentric movements, you can set an eccentric countdown timer that automatically starts when you begin the eccentric phase of your movement.

Should Eccentric Training Be Fast or Slow?

Based on scientific studies, increases in eccentric strength become more pronounced when the testing velocity corresponds to the eccentric velocity used in training.² Additionally, fast eccentric training is superior to slow eccentric training when it comes to improving:

• Eccentric and concentric strength and power.
• Vertical jump, drop jump, stretch-shortening cycle efficiency, and sprinting performance.
• Fast-twitch fibers hypertrophy (cross-sectional area) and IIx fiber composition.

This indicates that slow-tempo (low load) eccentric movements to increase the eccentric time under tension are probably not the most effective.

Obviously, the eccentric movement velocity correlates with the eccentric time under tension of a single repetition. This scientific publication that talks about incorporating eccentric training found that you can expect an eccentric duration of 8–10 seconds at 110%–120% of concentric 1RM.³ At higher loads (125%–130% of concentric 1RM), the eccentric duration drops to around 4–5 seconds.³ Another publication mentions that an even shorter eccentric duration of 2–3 seconds is ideal for maximizing hypertrophy but advises not to go any lower, to limit soreness.⁴

Quantifying Flywheel Training: The Ideal Fast Eccentric Training?

A combination of high-load and high-velocity eccentric movements results in high muscle (motor unit) tension and high exercise-induced muscle damage. This is thought to be why a combination of high-load, high-velocity results in a higher hypertrophic response.²

Flywheel inertial training (FIT) is a scientifically proven example of how you can easily train eccentrically with high velocities, says @loekvossen. Share on X

Flywheel inertial training (FIT) is a scientifically proven example of how you can easily train eccentrically with high velocities. The eccentric load depends on the size of the flywheel + the energy you put in the flywheel (inertia) during the concentric phase and your eccentric deceleration strategy.

Video 1. Flywheel training explained (source and full article: Create eccentric overload in flywheel training)

The challenge with flywheel training is that it’s difficult to quantify the load due to the combination of several factors determining the eccentric load, mentioned above. With the new app update of GymAware, you can start quantifying the load of flywheel training by measuring the concentric and eccentric velocities. Recent research shows that the mean velocity of a flywheel exercise is a valid method to quantify load and individualize the prescription of flywheel training.⁵ You can attach the VBT device to the flywheel handle or harness. You can also use the GymAware jump strap to measure core velocity or attach the VBT device to an additional barbell/PVC pipe.

By looking at the eccentric dip—available in both the GymAware iPad app and the FLEX Stronger app—you can also control the eccentric technique during flywheel training.

Quantify Eccentric Performance Progress

So far, we’ve talked about quantifying eccentric movements and implementing these numbers into training. How about tracking eccentric performance over time? “You can’t improve what you can’t measure!”

There are several ways you can use eccentric metrics to track progress over time. Some examples of progress that you can measure using GymAware:

• Increased peak or mean eccentric force (N)
• Increased eccentric peak power (W)
• Increased eccentric rep duration at a given supramaximal weight (s)
• Decreased peak or mean velocity at a given supramaximal weight (m/s)

You can also look at changes in the force-velocity curve, for instance, by comparing your maximal eccentric force with your maximal concentric force. Literature shows that the eccentric strength is approximately 20%–50% greater than the concentric strength, but where do you fit in this range?⁴ The GymAware Cloud software allows you to track all these changes over time within and between individuals.

BONUS: Quantify Eccentric Movement Technique

Eccentric training is the shortest route to muscle damage and delayed pain (DOMS) if you don’t take the time to slowly progress the intensity over the course of a training program.¹ The best way to safely incorporate eccentric training into your program is by measuring and controlling the eccentric load, with all the eccentric metrics mentioned earlier.

On top of that, you can prevent injuries by maintaining a good technique when eccentric loads and velocities are high. I already mentioned that GymAware measures the eccentric drop, for instance in a squat. Additionally, the real-time bar path visualization ensures you maintain a proper technique.

Wrap Up

I hope this article has inspired you to consider using data to quantify your most effective training: eccentric training. If so, don’t forget to start by measuring your current eccentric performance so you can track it over time using the metrics provided.

If you’re new to these metrics, I recommend learning more about velocity-based training (VBT) in general via my PDF download.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. McNeill C, Beaven CM, McMaster DT, and Gill N. “Survey of Eccentric-Based Strength and Conditioning Practices in Sport.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2020;34(10):2769–2775.

2. Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, and McGuigan M. “Chronic Adaptations to Eccentric Training: A Systematic Review.” Sports Medicine. 2017;47(5):917–941.

3. Mike J, Kerksick CM, and Kravitz L. “How to Incorporate Eccentric Training into a Resistance Training Program.” Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2015;37:5–17. 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000114.

4. Schoenfeld B. “The Use of Specialized Training Techniques to Maximize Muscle Hypertrophy.” Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2011 Aug;33(4):60–65. doi: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3182221ec2

5. Martín-Rivera F, Beato M, Alepuz-Moner V, and Maroto-Izquierdo S. “Use of concentric linear velocity to monitor flywheel exercise load.” Frontiers in Physiology. 2022 Aug;13, 961572.

When I started writing for Iron Game publications a half-century ago, I championed the cause that squats would not damage the knees. With the preponderance of research studies since then dispelling misinformation about the King of Lifts, you would think this case would be closed. Not quite.

From my perspective, strength coaches rarely have their athletes perform rock-bottom squats. As for cleans that involve rebounding out of the low catch position…ah, not a chance. Instead, many are often content to focus their leg training on partial-range step-ups, high hex bar deadlifts, and the so-called Bulgarian split squat.

Let’s see how we got here and explore the renewed interest in “knees over toes” exercises, starting with a tribute to the first champion of the squat, Paul Anderson.

(Lead image courtesy of Ben Patrick)

The Squat King

As a teenager, I purchased a copy of Paul Anderson’s book of training methods, which he graciously autographed. Why did I invest in a book by someone who encouraged me to squat heavy and drink cow’s blood? Because it was written by one of the strongest men in history.

Born in 1932, Anderson won a gold medal in the 1956 Olympics in weightlifting, but what captured the attention of the Iron Game community were his accomplishments in the squat. As a teenager, Anderson stood  5 feet 9 1/2 inches, sported 33-inch thighs, and squatted over 500 pounds. When he was 20, he unofficially squatted 660—30.5 pounds over the world record. In 1954, he squatted 820 and did quarter squats with 1,800 pounds. Anderson’s thighs grew to 36 inches, and his body weight to 360. Performing as a professional strongman, Anderson eventually squatted 900 pounds for 10 reps and 1,206 pounds for a 1RM.

In Anderson’s era, the strength coaching profession was in its infancy, and few athletes lifted weights. No one cared how weightlifters or any other athletes squatted. Share on X

In Anderson’s era, the strength coaching profession was in its infancy, and few athletes lifted weights. No one cared how weightlifters or any other athletes squatted—until 1961. That was the year Karl K. Klein’s questionable study about the association between squats and knee stability was published. Note the word “questionable.”

One of the subjects in Klein’s study was Bill Starr. Starr broke the world record in the Olympic press and wrote the strength training classic, The Strongest Shall Survive. Starr said Klein measured knee stability by applying manual pressure to a metal device that extended above and below the subject’s knee.

In a letter published in Strength and Health magazine in 1963, Starr said the study was not double-blind because Klein would ask the subjects if they did squats before he applied pressure. “The gadget which he placed on the lifters’ knees could be manipulated by the examiner to obtain any reading that he so desired,” said Starr. He added that many lifters quit the experiment “since he was exerting so much pressure that he hurt their knees.”

Several years later, sports science researcher Earle J. Meyers tried to replicate the study using a copy of Klein’s testing device. He concluded that “the deep squat and half-squat exercises did not produce significant differences in their effect on collateral ligament stretch, quadriceps strength, or knee joint flexibility.”

Klein expanded on his work with a book he co-authored with Dr. Fred Allman, Jr., in 1969 called The Knee in Sports. Although Klein was fine with the parallel squats that would pass in many of today’s powerlifting federations, the message passed on to the sports and medical communities was that squats—any squats— were bad for the knees.

Eventually, the scientific community countered the squat stability issue with research studies and position papers that expanded on Meyers’ work. One of the most prominent researchers on the subject was sports scientist Dr. Mike Stone, a former weightlifter. Stone and Jeff Chandler, Ed.D., co-authored a position paper on the squat endorsed by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) in 1991. Extensively referenced, the paper concluded, “Squats, when performed correctly and with appropriate supervision, are not only safe but may be a significant deterrent to knee injuries.”

Despite the position paper, the NSCA adopted a conservative approach to squat depth by recommending that the knees should not extend beyond the toes. Share on X

This position paper helped the cause, but for some reason, the NSCA adopted a conservative approach to squat depth by recommending that the knees should not extend beyond the toes. In their position paper, the general recommendation was that the trainee should “descend only until the tops of the thighs are parallel to the floor or slightly below” and “the shin should remain as vertical as possible to reduce shear forces at the knee. Maximal forward movement of the knees should place them no more than slightly in front of the toes.” These recommendations were reflected in study materials for their strength coaching certification, such as their textbook, Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.

In the description of the squat in this NSCA textbook, the accompanying drawing and text recommended only squatting until the tops of the thighs are parallel to the floor (image 3) and not bouncing out of the bottom. Now consider the low squat positions of an elite weightlifter snatching and an elite weightlifter squatting in image 3. Why is the NSCA apparently okay with the sport of weightlifting but not with the squatting depth performed by weightlifters?

While this debate was happening in athletic fitness training, the bodybuilding world took a different path, led by Vince Gironda.

The Gluteless Training Guru

Gironda was an accomplished bodybuilder who also “walked the talk” as a personal trainer. He coached Larry Scott, the first Mr. Olympia, and earned the nickname “Trainer to the Stars” for his work with Hollywood celebrities. His clientele included Cher, Clint Eastwood, James Garner, Burt Reynolds, Denzel Washington, and Carl Weathers.

Gironda believed conventional squats widened the hips, making a physique look blocky. “Full squats build the gluteus maximus (buttocks) by the forward position of the upper body and the depth of the movement.” In many leg exercises, these requirements resulted in the knees extending far over the toes. The sissy squat was his favorite, and he even wrote a book called The Sissy Squat.

Gironda’s barbell sissy squat was awkward and required considerable balance, reducing how much resistance could be used. However, many weight training machines available today enable you to easily perform exercises that allow you to extend your knees over the toes and do not involve a forward torso position.

Many weight training machines available today enable you to easily perform exercises that allow you to extend your knees over the toes and do not involve a forward torso position. Share on X

Image 5 shows examples of modern bodybuilders performing exercises on machines according to Gironda’s guidelines.

You’ll notice in both these exercises that the knees extend well in front of the toes and the heels are lifted, as in the Gironda sissy squat. However, because the resistance slides on guided rails in these two exercises, the trainee can put maximum effort into working the quads. Also, advanced training methods, including heavy eccentrics and force reps, can easily be performed with these machines to overload all areas of a muscle’s strength curve.

One criticism of the leg training methods that exclude the involvement of the glutes, particularly leg extensions, is that the hamstrings are less active than in the squat. This inactivity puts excessive stress on the anterior cruciate ligament. During a conventional squat, the hamstrings help neutralize the pull of the quadriceps to cause anterior tibial translation, a shear force that tries to pry the joint apart.

A complementary knees-over-toes timeline could be attributed to Canadian strength coach Charles R. Poliquin (image 6) and his approach to knee rehabilitation. As Coach Poliquin’s primary editor for over two decades, I had a front-row seat to this experience. 

The VMO Distraction

Over 30 years ago, Poliquin told me about his general approach to knee rehabilitation. It focused on first targeting the quad muscles medial (inside) of the knee with partial-range exercises, then gradually working the entire quad by increasing the range of motion. He called the specific muscle he wanted to work the VMO, an acronym for vastus medialis oblique. (FYI: We now know that this muscle can be divided into two sections, the vastus medialis longus and the vastus medialis obliquus, which have different lines of pull on the knee.)

Poliquin used this approach to leg training with the Canadian National Women’s Volleyball Team in the ’80s. When Poliquin started working with these athletes, most of them suffered from patellar tendinitis, a painful inflammation of the patellar tendon.

Poliquin told me that because volleyball players seldom bend their legs through a full range of motion, the muscles that exert an outward pull on the kneecap become stronger than those that pull the knee inward. This imbalance affected the tracking of the kneecap, causing this overuse injury.

Poliquin stressed the importance of starting athletes with full “knees-over-toes” squats at an early training age to keep the knees healthy. Share on X

Here is the three-step progression Poliquin told me he used with these athletes:

1. Petersen Step-Up. The Petersen step-up is a partial step-up to target the muscles on the knee’s medial (inside) portion. It starts with the working leg a few inches off the floor, the heel elevated, and the knee slightly bent. As the leg straightens, the athlete rocks backward to minimize the shearing stress on the knee (thus, it can be performed in the early stages of rehab). The descent involves lowering the heel and raising it again before returning to the start.

Because so many people did not perform the Petersen step-up correctly (thanks partly to the countless YouTube videos performing it wrong), Poliquin later substituted it with a simpler version called the “Poliquin step-up.” One difference between the Poliquin and the Petersen step-up is that the entire foot of the working leg is placed on a wedge board. Also, to focus more on the working leg in both exercises, Poliquin would have you lift the toes of the trailing leg to avoid pushing off with that leg.

2. Front Step-Up. When an athlete could perform a Petersen step-up with the working leg at shin level, it was time to progress to the front step-up. He would have you start with the knee slightly below the crease of the hip. Again, the toes of the trailing leg were lifted. When the athlete could comfortably perform step-ups with the upper thigh parallel to the floor, the next progression would be the Australian squat.
3. Australian Squat. High-bar full squats were the final step in this knee rehab protocol. The term “full” means descending so that the hamstrings cover the calves and the knees travel in front of the toes. This contrasts with the low-bar parallel squats performed by powerlifters that minimize the involvement of the quads. According to Poliquin, the further the bar moves down the back, the more the load shifts away from the quads and onto the glutes, erector spinae, and hamstrings.

One squat variation Poliquin often prescribed during this phase was the Australian squat (video 1), which emphasizes the quads in the external range (i.e., the area closest to the hip). It also reduces the compression forces on the spine because the torso remains vertical longer. Poliquin showed me this variation over 30 years ago, so I had always called it the Poliquin squat. However, I recently heard it was initially called the Australian squat, so I stand corrected. 

Video 1. The Australian squat emphasizes the quadriceps muscles closer to the hip. It begins with a slow descent and the knees extending in front of the toes.

Poliquin stressed the importance of starting athletes with full “knees-over-toes” squats at an early training age to keep the knees healthy. He also extended his approach to other popular leg exercises, particularly lunges and split squats. Although it took many years after Poliquin presented his opinions on leg training, research proved that the highest compressive forces on the knee were at 90 degrees. There’s more.

A 2013 review of 164 research papers concluded that there was no greater risk of developing chondromalacia, osteoarthritis, or osteochondritis performing deep squats than with quarter and half squats. Share on X

A 2013 review of 164 research papers concluded that there was no greater risk of developing chondromalacia, osteoarthritis, or osteochondritis performing deep squats than with quarter and half squats. Further, the researchers concluded that quarter and half squats could contribute to long-term damage to the knees and spine. “With the same load configuration as in the deep squat, half and quarter squat training with comparatively supra-maximal loads will favour degenerative changes in the knee joints and spinal joints in the long term. Provided that technique is learned accurately under expert supervision and with progressive training loads, the deep squat presents an effective training exercise for protection against injuries and strengthening of the lower extremity.”

Charles R. Poliquin passed away on September 26, 2018, but in recent years, internet influencer Ben Patrick (lead photo) has been preserving his legacy by promoting Poliquin’s approach to knee rehabilitation and training.

Knees Over Toes Goes Viral

Patrick was a promising college basketball player who suffered chronic knee pain that led to numerous surgeries. Poliquin’s work impressed Patrick so much that he booked a phone consultation. Patrick followed Poliquin’s advice; soon, Patrick’s knees became pain-free, and his jumping ability improved dramatically.

Patrick shared his success on social media and created a fitness consulting company incorporating many of Poliquin’s ideas. At last count, Patrick’s YouTube channel has north of a million subscribers, and his followers include 2,291 success stories. Because of his emphasis on full-range leg exercises, Patrick took on the nickname of the “Kneesovertoesguy.”

One benefit of full-range exercises is that they increase the strength, mobility, and stability of the ankles. Share on X

One benefit of full-range exercises is that they increase the ankles’ strength, mobility, and stability. Check out video 2 of my two former athletes, Sesely and Nicole. In it, Sesely performs the snatch, and Nicole performs the clean and jerk. Sesely demonstrates remarkable ankle strength and stability in saving her lift, and Nicole is shown using the elastic properties of the Achilles to help her bounce out of a heavy clean. 

Video 2: The first female lifter in this video shows remarkable ankle strength and stability while saving a snatch. The second lifter demonstrates the elastic properties of the Achilles by bouncing out of a heavy clean. Both lifters, coached by the author, broke New England weightlifting records.

Besides being able to lift impressive weights with acrobatic saves, full-range exercises performed quickly help prevent injuries, particularly to the ankles and Achilles tendon. According to strength coach and posturologist Paul Gagné, ankle mobility reduces the stress on the foot and Achilles, thus reducing the risk of injury. Case in point: weightlifters.

Ankle, Achilles tendon, and foot injuries are rare in weightlifting, despite weightlifting shoes being low cut and providing minimal lateral support. Note the female athletes in image 8. The first photo is of a 105-pound lifter collapsing awkwardly with 268 pounds, placing her quads and ankles in a position of extreme stress. The second photo shows a 165-pound lifter dropping 297 pounds on her legs. Neither lifter was injured due to a protective mechanism called the “reflective release.”

“Reflexive release is an extremely rapid, complex switching from muscle tension to relaxation in response to some sudden loss of equilibrium, fall, injury or other unanticipated event in sport,” says weightlifting sports scientist Bud Charniga. “This mechanism precludes conscious effort to move or fall in such a way to avoid injury. Circumstances where reflexive release can be effective in injury avoidance are too fast for mind–to–muscle actions to be useful.” Charniga adds that the isometric and near-isometric methods commonly used by bodybuilders and powerlifters would suppress the reflective release mechanism.

Contrast those results with the number of NFL and NBA players who injure their ankles and tear their Achilles tendons without being touched. Or the fact that an estimated 70%–75% of all ankle sprains and strains are considered non-contact injuries. (For a deep dive on this topic, check out my article on ACL and Achilles injuries.) There’s more.

Besides preventing injuries, Gagné says ankle mobility is a critical component of speed and jumping ability. “One indicator of elastic strength is your ability to lift your big toe and dorsiflex the foot, which your flexor hallucis longus and extensor hallucis brevis muscles control. The higher you can raise your big toe without strain, the more elasticity you have in the foot and the Achilles. And the more elastic energy you have, the higher you can jump and the faster you can run.”

How do you develop high levels of elastic strength if you’re not a weightlifter? I have a few suggestions. Share on X

So, how do you develop high levels of elastic strength if you’re not a weightlifter? I have a few suggestions.

Train the Way You’re Going to Fight

One problem with recommending full-range exercises is that many athletes can only perform a partial squat due to a lack of ankle flexibility. One dynamic stretch I’ve used with sprinters and cross country runners at Brown University to address this issue is to have them perform a squat while standing on a wedge board (aka slant board) with the smaller angle facing you (video 3). It’s a simple, effective way to stretch both calf muscles: the gastrocnemius (upper calf) and the soleus (lower calf). For best results, perform this movement barefoot.

For variety, change the position of the feet. Pointing your feet inward increases the stretch on the calf’s lateral (outside) part, while pointing the feet outward works the calf’s inside (medial) part. Gagné says a beginner should start with an angle of no more than 5 degrees. “You generally do not want beginners to use more than a 5-degree angle because a higher wedge may put too much pressure on the Achilles tendon and jam the subtalar joint.”

Because most squat wedge boards are at about 20 degrees, one way to compensate is to stand further away from the edge, starting with the ball of the foot on the board. As your flexibility improves, move up on the board. 

Video 3: A wedge board can be used to perform a dynamic stretch for both calf muscles: the gastrocnemius and soleus. (This soccer photo and the modeling photo in video 1 by Joel Morel.)

When mobility improves, a progressive next step would be ankle squats (video 4), which strengthen both calf muscles through a full range of motion. These are performed with your heels a few inches apart and feet and knees flared out. You squat all the way down and only come three-quarters of the way up. Max weights are not used.

Video 4: Ankle squats are an effective exercise to strengthen the gastrocnemius and soleus through a full range of motion.

Charniga saw elite weightlifters performing this exercise in 1974 and had this to say: “This technique of squatting where the shins are actively tilted forward with flexing knees and near vertical trunk incorporates the soleus and other single-joint plantar flexion muscles of the shank. These muscles contract eccentrically as the Achilles tendon stretches, accumulating elastic/strain energy in the process. When the athlete reverses direction, the aforesaid soleus and other single-joint plantar flexion muscles perform what can be described as a reverse-origin insertion contraction. That is to say the origin of these muscles in the middle of the shank moves towards the insertion on the heel.”

This last statement should be of interest to strength coaches who have their athletes spend their limited training time on isolation exercises for the tibialis anterior, such as the dynamic axel resistance device introduced by Robert Gajda in Total Body Training, a book he co-authored with Richard H. Dominguez, MD. The tibialis anterior muscle helps a weightlifter move under the barbell quickly when their feet are off the platform (image 9, left) and assists in moving the shin forward when the foot is on the floor. Note the development of this muscle (along with the calves) of a weightlifter in image 9 (right). Performing weightlifting movements would make such isolation training redundant.

Is there a downside to using wedge boards? Yes, particularly if these exercises are performed instead of conventional lifts for extended periods.

“If heels-elevated exercises are used occasionally to develop more muscle around the knee joint, fine,” says Gagné. “But overusing it creates less ankle mobility because you’re in a state of semi-plantarflexion.” Further, according to a 2003 study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (Fry et al.), restricted ankle motion increases the stress on the hips and lower back. There’s more.

If you’re an athlete seeking to perform at peak levels with minimal risk of injury, take measures to improve your ankle mobility and focus on squatting heavy and squatting deep. Share on X

Gagné says using a wedge board to push the knee further over the toes than they can go with the feet on the floor may damage the knees. “Removing the foot from the equation creates large shearing forces on the patella tendon, which may lead to tendonitis and ligament laxity,” says Gagné.

If you use wedge boards to occasionally help you achieve higher levels of quadriceps development, particularly around the knee, you should be okay. If you’re an athlete seeking to perform at peak levels with minimal risk of injury, take measures to improve your ankle mobility and focus on squatting heavy and squatting deep!

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