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Elite-level athletes can show great feats of strength and power in extraordinary ways—and, at times, display these spectacular performances in areas they have never actually trained. This phenomena brings up an interesting concept in training, that of “expression” vs. “development.”

One specific example of this occurred in a case study¹ looking at baseball hitters’ proficiency in vision and reaction tests. In the tests, the best batters were able to also score very high on light-up board reaction tests, even though none of them had ever trained with the light-up boards before. This is a good representation of being able to express great general visual and reactive capabilities due to the many years of training to hit against challenging pitching.

But does this mean that training with the light-up board would be an effective means of training those players? Not necessarily. The best batters scored high in spite of never training with those methods before! This is where expression vs. development comes into play: tapping quickly and scoring high in a light-up board test is an expression of their ability to take in visual feedback and react by rapidly moving their hands to the right spot at the right time. They developed this capability through many years of batting practice. But enough of the baseball references…let’s dive into some training!

Expression in Training

Key performance indicators (KPIs) are an effective tool for evaluating whether training is producing the desired adaptations. For high-speed rotational athletes, KPIs often include tested performance in jumps, medicine ball throw distance and velocity, and other measures that can reflect the necessary neuromuscular qualities found in the sporting movement. For example, pressing power² is highly associated with swing power—therefore, a medicine ball chest pass for distance is an appropriate test to show that training is working!

Key performance indicators are an effective tool for evaluating whether training is producing the desired adaptations, says @billmills. Share on X

Video 1. Medicine ball throws for velocity can be used as a KPI to evaluate training.

The issue is determining how that improvement in expression occurred. Improvements in expression, or performance in an exercise, can come from:

1. Increases in overall force production from muscle groups highly involved within the movement pattern.
2. Increases in rate of force development from the neuromuscular system—increased contractile velocities or improved speed of the signal from brain to muscles.
3. Improvements in joint stabilization (tendon stiffness or muscle stiffness), which ultimately allows for a better transfer of energy throughout the kinetic sequence of the movement.
4. Improvements in muscle and tendon architecture, such as fiber-type shifts or appropriate tendon compliance, allowing for greater transfer of energy within the stretch reflex of the muscles when utilized in a high velocity fashion.
5. Improvements in technique or coordination specific to the movement being tested. This increases with measured reps as the athlete will often find the optimal pattern to achieve the highest score.

As you can see, the first four of the above areas can transfer well from one movement to another movement. There is great transfer to sport-specific power when one of those first four areas is developed in training. The last, though it can often account for great improvements in performance, does not transfer very well to other movements.

For example, let’s say an athlete performs a medicine ball rotational shotput throw³ in their training. They are performing a light load, high velocity movement that is rotational in nature, so it correlates well with throwing and swinging performance. Let’s say the first time the athlete does the exercise, they achieve a score of 30 mph. Over the next few sessions, they adjust their hand placement and elbow positioning so that they can push harder through the ball. The following week, after practicing it several times over the course of the week, they achieve a score of 34 mph. That’s a jump of four miles per hour from their initial test, but it does not mean they will now throw a baseball or swing a bat that much harder!

The adjustment in their technique is specific to the medicine ball throw.

When Is Expression Meaningful?

Many athletes will show huge improvements in the first few attempts testing with KPIs. Improvements in that short of a time period are likely all due to “beginner gains,” or improvement in coordination specific to the movement that comes about from the first one to three weeks of performing a certain exercise on a frequent basis. The mechanism behind these gains is the brain and central nervous system combining to create a more efficient signaling pattern to recruit the right muscle groups at the right time for both the stability to execute the exercise and the force to complete it.

As in the previous example, the athlete may find a better way to grip the implement or perform the technique in such a way that optimizes leverage, and therefore achieve greater performance in that way. Regardless, these early increases in performance are merely expressions that don’t reflect development or transfer to sport-specific power.

Let’s continue with the example of the athlete who saw huge “beginner gains” in the medicine ball shotput throw. In the months following, the athlete trains hard with rotational medicine ball throws, strength training, and other means of developing power. The shotput throw performance climbs steadily by one mile per hour every few weeks. This is where the expression begins to matter. These small, steady, and slow increases in performance are indications that neural and muscular qualities are the main reasons that performance is improving. This should transfer well to other rotational power movements, like swinging a bat faster or throwing a ball harder!

Video 2. MPH of medicine ball throws can be tracked to assess training progress.

Development in Training

Now that we’ve explored why expression does not always equal development, it’s important to dive into what development truly means. The reality is that development for one athlete might look entirely different for another. At the end of the day, all that matters is that training pushes adaptations for the athlete towards more power capabilities in their sport or more ability to resist injury.

The reality is that development for one athlete might look entirely different for another, says @billmills. Share on X

Let’s take the above example of a medicine ball shotput throw (after the “beginner gains” phase) and create a hypothetical scenario of training approaches for two athletes: Vinny and Frank. Both athletes will perform the med ball shotput throw in high volumes with high effort on a regular basis in their program. Let’s say no other form of upper body training was done to impact their throwing power and performance during this period.

In our hypothetical scenario, Vinny and Frank both throw 80 mph and want to throw 90 mph to improve their game and get noticed by college coaches. Both athletes want to throw harder, as harder fastballs are more difficult for opposing batters to hit, and college coaches will take notice if they show 90 mph on the radar gun. Vinny is very big and strong, but lacks rate of force development qualities—he has always struggled with throwing a baseball fast, in spite of his great strength in the bench press. Frank is skinnier and weaker—he has good velocity for someone his size, but that’s still not enough to stand out on the field and get noticed by college coaches.

Since Vinny lacks power at high velocities, the shotput throw fits his needs well. He’s able to see two to three mph jumps in performance every month of the offseason. By the end, he’s able to shotput throw a four-pound ball at 39 mph from a pitching start position. He concurrently trained hard with baseball throw velocity as well, long-tossing and throwing at high effort for the radar gun. This all increased his velocity to the point of breaking the 90 mph mark after just four months of training.

Frank, on the other hand was not able to improve his shotput throw very much. He did not gain any weight or strength in his upper body, and the medicine ball throws were not able to develop his biggest needs. His baseball throw velocity was only able to improve by a marginal amount.

This is a very rudimentary example and does not take into consideration other important areas for throwing velocity such as mobility, movement pattern, ball grip, and throwing deceleration capabilities. The goal of this example is to demonstrate how a force-velocity profile may differ greatly between two athletes, although their external output (80 mph throw) is the same. As such, not all athletes should follow the same routine.

A force-velocity profile may differ greatly between two athletes, although their external output is the same, says @billmills. Share on X

Video 3. Using a supine overhead throw with 10lb, 6lb, and 2lb medicine balls to create a force-velocity profile.

This is based on an actual story of an athlete I trained who came into the offseason topping at 83 mph off the mound and finished the offseason at 91 mph. He entered the offseason with a 285 lb bench press and 565 lb deadlift, yet could not throw the 4 lb ball harder than 32 mph in the shotput throw. We did not train any reps with the traditional bench press, but we focused on many forms of ballistic pressing. He had all the force in the tank, but he needed to develop his rate of force development. The medicine ball throws helped to develop and express! That, coupled with a strict, high-effort throwing regimen, helped him increase velocity by so much in such a short time.

Frank, on the other hand, is a fictional individual but represents a likely scenario for a lot of younger baseball players. They will find cool-looking, explosive exercises on social media and copy that into their training. All the while, they neglect strength training, proper diet, and sleep patterns…and that leads to them making little progress!

Are Medicine Ball Throws Expression or Development?

To best answer this question, you first have to look at the athlete’s biggest needs. If they are velocity-deficient—meaning they are strong but lack the ability to produce force at very high speeds—then medicine ball throws will be a perfect fit. However, athletes who are force-deficient, as many beginners are, will not see great development with medicine ball throws. They may be able to express great performance with medicine balls, but they won’t be able to see large improvements as a result of doing them. Those force-deficient athletes will need to train against heavier loads and with greater mechanical tension to improve muscle mass and overall force production. That’s how they will develop power!

Athletes who are force-deficient, as many beginners are, will not see great development with medicine ball throws, says @billmills. Share on X

Video 4. Supine overhead medicine ball throw.

What About One-Rep Max Testing?

This is another common area of argument on social media. Unless you’re competing for a powerlifting or Olympic lifting competition, you don’t truly ever have to test a one-rep max. Increases in strength gains are great but testing those with a big one-rep max day can be taxing and detrimental to the program as a whole.

Let’s take the example of an athlete who wants to improve their squat from 315 to 405 lbs, ultimately helping them run faster and jump higher. If they constantly test their one-rep max every week, they will gas themselves out to the point that it could take three to four days of recovery before they can do any meaningful form of lower body training again at high intensity. This comes back to expression versus development; plus the fact that most novice lifters will throw technique out the window if all they ever do is try to test their one-rep max. So now they’re decreasing the number of meaningful training days they can complete and limiting the number of high quality reps in their program. That’s a recipe for zero jump and sprint gains at the end of the offseason.

Most novice lifters will throw technique out the window if all they ever do is try to test their one-rep max, says @billmills. Share on X

Rather, I would suggest high-effort reps, even if they are heavy sets of one to three reps. Always try to move the bar as fast as possible. Never miss a rep and add weight week in and week out. If you have a bar speed sensor, you can test the expression of each rep and ultimately ensure high quality. That’s a recipe for success!

What Are Some Common Forms of Expression?

These are commonly found in the sports performance realm. I’ll break them down between ways they can be a “smart” or a “not so smart” decision depending on how they’re used. It should be noted that these are generalizations. Everyone will have their own unique way of using the following scenarios. Just make sure of the best fit for your program.

One-Rep Max Testing: Most commonly used in compound lifts such as the squat, bench press, deadlift, and other barbell-based lifting movements (Olympic lifts, etc.).

Smart:

• Tested at the middle and end of the offseason.
• Tested after months of consistent training, ensuring perfect form and likely a large increase in performance from when they started.
• Great way to build camaraderie and “buy-in” to training.

Not so smart:

• Tested too frequently, not allowing for enough time spent training to actually increase strength.
• Allowing for sub-par form with the movement.
• Testing in an unsafe setting without spotters, catch-pins, etc.

Key Performance Indicator Testing: These are tests that reflect the power needs found in the sport. For example, a baseball outfielder must be able to accelerate quickly in a sprint and develop rotational power at very high speeds. Some good key performance indicators for this outfielder could be a rotational medicine ball throw for velocity (measuring rotational power), a 30 yd dash (measuring sprint acceleration), and a medicine ball chest pass for distance (measuring upper body pressing power at high speeds). Those measures should go up as a result of all the training done in the program.

Smart:

• Tested once every few weeks to ensure the program is pushing the athletes in the right direction.
• Tested in a competition setting, ensuring that athletes push each other.
• Put these numbers on a leaderboard! Exercises like jumps, sprints, and medicine ball throw velocities belong on the board up there with weightlifting one-rep maxes—it shows what tests correlate best with the sport!

Not so smart:

• Only using the KPI tests in your training, neglecting other important areas.
• Equating a KPI with on-field performance. (Example: “I throw this medicine ball 40 mph, that means I throw a baseball 90 mph, so I don’t have to train throwing a baseball”…it doesn’t work like that!)
• Testing in ill-timed or fatigued conditions. If an athlete just played four games in four days, they probably aren’t ready to test!

Video 5. Once coaches identify their training KPIs, they should track and test every few weeks to make sure their athletes are progressing in the right direction.

What Are Some Common Forms of Development?

These are some ways that you can really focus on development in training. It really comes down to knowing the athlete’s needs best. So in this segment, I’m going to break it down to “If they need more strength” or “If they need more velocity.” Those categories are a simple way to break it down, but understand that a healthy mix of all training types (high speed, heavy load, etc.) should all fit in a program to see the best gains possible.

A healthy mix of all training types (high speed, heavy load, etc.) should all fit in a program to see the best gains possible, says @billmills. Share on X

High Quality Weight Room Reps: Showing up to your workout is half the battle. High quality reps are where the battle is won!

If you need more strength:

• Focus on perfect technique on each rep. Why? When we change technique in an exercise, we change the level of recruitment for the intended muscles. For example, with a dumbbell row,⁴ you want to focus on the muscle groups in the rear shoulder and upper back driving the movement. Too many kids will start the row by extending the hips and yanking the chest upwards, taking away from the effectiveness of the exercise!
• Add weight or reps each week. Progressive overload is crucial to increasing muscle size and maximal force production.
• Heavy sets of five reps work great for a majority of compound lifts. I typically don’t recommend sets with much higher reps than that, as fatigue during the set can take away from the quality of rep.

If you need more speed:

• Use a bar speed sensor if possible. Know what ranges you should be working in to achieve your goals. This also ensures that intent is as high as it can be on every rep.
• Keep bar speeds⁵ from falling too much. For example, if you’re working with a heavy set of three reps and your bar speed is 0.5 m/s, your bar speed should never fall below 0.4 m/s. If you do dip below that, you’re likely running more towards fatigue and further away from power development.

Sprinting, Plyometrics, and Other High-Speed Forms of Training: As I’ve talked about previously, there are some athletes who may have a greater need for these forms of training than others. Regardless, all athletes will likely see some positives come about from these styles of training—just make sure it fits well with the entirety of the program.

If you need more strength:

• Program a few sets of these after a warm up and prior to weightlifting. This can create a great potentiating⁶ effect, helping athletes move some serious weight afterwards. For example, three sets of four to five max-effort jumps can get athletes ready to squat and deadlift a house!
• Do not mix conditioning with speed development! The goal here is not to gas athletes out, as that could run them into fatigue—so much that it will take away from their ability to make progress in the weight room.
• Don’t be afraid to add a little bit of resistance to their high-speed work. I have found that resisted sprints, heavier med ball slams, and chest passes work best with force-deficient athletes. Why? They need to be able to apply more force to their movements. More load should create adaptations leading to more force.

If you need more velocity:

• Measure performance on every rep. Time your sprints, measure jump height, etc. Why? This is the best way to ensure low fatigue and increased performance over time.
• Tailor your speed work to your biggest needs. For example, if you know you have great top speed, but relatively poor acceleration capabilities, you may want to increase volume of shorter sprints and improve performance in those.
• Lighten the load if needed. Assisted jumps, lightweight medicine ball throws, etc. can increase the speed of the movement. This is ultimately the missing factor—applying more velocity to their movements.

Tying It All Together

Always focus on development first. Use key performance indicators as a compass for where your training needs to push, but it is not a map—those KPIs can be a huge help and a great way to build camaraderie. Ultimately, you must always push for high quality reps in every movement. That’s what makes the difference at the end of the program!

Always focus on development first, says @billmills. Share on X

If you haven’t guessed yet, my personal area of expertise is in rotational power sports such as baseball and javelin. Medicine ball throws, jumps, and sprints are all great KPIs for baseball players, golfers, and javelin throwers. I recommend testing every two to three weeks to see that they are improving as a result of training. Those movements can produce greater adaptations with those who are already quite strong and profile as velocity-deficient. Therefore, they really should only be included frequently with those types of athletes. Athletes who are beginners or are more force-deficient should train against heavier resistances. They should aim to increase maximal force production and that will ultimately improve their performance with higher velocities!

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References & Supplemental Media

1. Laby, D.M., Kirschen, D.G., Govindarajulu, U., and DeLand, P. “The Hand-eye Coordination of Professional Baseball Players: The Relationship to Batting.” Optometry and Vision Science, 2018.

2. Miyaguchi, K. and Demura, S. “Relationship between upper-body strength and bat swing speed in high-school baseball players.” J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Jul;26(7):1786-91. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318236d126. PMID: 21921820.

3. Bill Miller, Instagram, 7/14/2020.

4. Bill Miller, Instagram, 6/23/2021.

5. Rodríguez-Rosell, D., Yáñez-García, J.M., Mora-Custodio, R., Pareja-Blanco, F., Ravelo-García, A.G., Ribas-Serna J., and González-Badillo, J.J. “Velocity-based resistance training: impact of velocity loss in the set on neuromuscular performance and hormonal response.” Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2020 Aug;45(8):817-828. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0829. Epub 2020 Feb 4. PMID: 32017598.

6. Bill Miller, Instagram, 10/7/2020.

Edward Lorenz was a famous American mathematician and meteorologist, and one of Lorenz’s research interests was attempting to predict both the weather and the longer-term climate. One day in 1961, Lorenz was in his lab carrying out calculations and working on a computer model aimed at predicting a weather system. This was tedious work, requiring him to input numbers from a printout for each of the 12 variables that the model contained. Lorenz had run these particular numbers before and was redoing the prediction model as a way to check it.

On the second run-through, Lorenz entered one value ever-so-slightly differently. In the original simulation, the number he used was 0.506127. In his new simulation, Lorenz rounded the number—almost imperceptibly—to 0.506. Lorenz then went down the hall to get a coffee, and when he returned, he was astounded by what he saw: the small rounding he had made had a dramatic effect on the weather scenario that played out in the prediction. The results of the second simulation—simulating two months’ worth of weather—were nothing like the first.

Lorenz was puzzled by this, assuming that there was an issue with the computer system. He checked the equipment but couldn’t spot anything obvious. Rechecking the data, Lorenz noticed that, early on in the simulation, the values from both simulations were the same. However, after about a week of the simulation, they started to differ—at first by just one unit after the decimal place, then two. The size of the disparity typically doubled every four days or so, creating a large difference in simulation outcome after two weeks.

This was a stark reminder to Lorenz that miniscule changes within a complex system (like the weather) could have large downstream effects. In later speeches—and in popular media—this would be dubbed “the butterfly effect,” whereby one flap of a butterfly’s wings could create a tiny change in the atmosphere that may be enough to alter the course of the weather forever. This concept led to the development of chaos theory, the study of complex systems that suggests that, despite appearing random, there are underlying patterns and interconnectedness between aspects within such systems.

From Typhoons to Torn ACLs

We see these theories applied in practice during hurricane season—predicting the path of a hurricane is important, as it allows governments to prepare residents within the path to evacuate if needed. This prediction is, of course, difficult. In large part this is because of chaos theory—the factors that influence the path of a hurricane include wind speed and direction, sea temperature, and humidity, and small changes in any one of these can have a large influence on the path of the hurricane.

As a result, predicting the path of a hurricane requires accurate projections for each of these variables, along with an understanding of how they interact. Scientists are getting pretty good at this:

• In 1954, agencies could only provide predictions up to one day in advance.
• By 1964, this had grown to three days.
• By 2001, hurricane tracks were predicted up to five days into the future.

In 2020, Hurricane Laura was first identified as a large mass of clouds off the west coast of Africa. Five days later, it was given its name, and three days after that, meteorologists predicted that it would hit land on August 27, at 2 a.m., in Cameron, Louisiana. On August 27, at 1 a.m. and less than a kilometer away from Cameron, Hurricane Laura did indeed make landfall.

Given the complexity involved in predicting the path of a hurricane, the accuracy of this prediction is quite remarkable. This is something scientists have been working on for decades—making small, incremental improvements that add up to major leaps forward. The question is: How have they done this?

This is something scientists have been working on for decades—making small, incremental improvements that add up to major leaps forward. The question is: How have they done this? Share on X

Back in the 1970s, scientists relied on patterns seen in past hurricanes, essentially using prior performance as a predictor of future hurricane path. This was fairly useful—in the 1970s, meteorologists could typically predict the site of landfall for a hurricane to within around 500 miles—but not quite precise enough. Five hundred miles is quite a large margin for error, leading to a lot of people perhaps being unnecessarily warned.

Over time, meteorologists have begun to utilize more complex models that are dynamic in nature; the models change based on the data they receive. And they receive a lot of data, with more than 40 million different observations plugged into the models daily. This data is then used to create 50 different forecasts, in which the data is ever so slightly modified, allowing the scientists to understand the confidence of their predictions.

In late 2019, researchers from the U.S.—led by lead author Ben Stern—used this hurricane example to put some of the practices seen in sports performance under the microscope, as sports injuries are also complex and dynamic in nature. In a 2016 paper, published in the prestigious British Journal of Sports Medicine, the authors argued that simplifying complex problems into basic units is highly reductionist. This approach is useful for linear relationships (for example, exploring the relationship between smoking and lung cancer, where the more cigarettes you smoke, and for longer, the greater your risk); it less useful, however, for non-linear relationships, or relationships that are highly complex and multifactorial in nature.

Looking at ACL injuries, for example, we can see that the importance of a given risk factor differs between sports: in ballet dancers, fatigue is a key risk factor, while in basketball players, it is hip muscle weakness. But we can also expect to see variation between people in the same sport—Ballet Dancer A’s risk factors may be different than those of Ballet Dancer B. And yet, Stern and his coauthors wrote that we tend to completely ignore this in sport, instead focusing on, say, one “injury prediction test” and using this to inform future risk and interventions.

Meteorologists use 40 million data points daily to predict the path of a hurricane, while we might use one data point in a yearly injury screen to inform our practice over a 12-month period.

Meteorologists use 40 million data points daily to predict the path of a hurricane, while we might use one data point in a yearly injury screen to inform our practice over a 12-month period. Share on X

The Butterfly Effect and Injury Models

Stern and his colleagues instead suggest that we view the athlete in front of us as a highly complex human that is able to exhibit one of two separate states: a healthy state and an injured state. The athlete will constantly move toward one of these two end states—sometimes getting very close to the end destination (i.e., being injured)—but mostly being pushed or pulled in each direction.

The factors that push or pull an athlete in a given direction are broad and varied, and we should cast the net widely here: aspects such as stress, previous history, and non-sport workload all contribute to increasing or decreasing the risk of injury. Each of these factors can be subject to two competing factors:

1. Stress (which is destabilizing).
2. Accommodation (which is stabilizing).

The athlete is constantly balancing both stressful and accommodating factors; how well they are able to do this determines how likely they are to become injured. As this balance is highly dynamic and ever-changing, it’s easy to see how basing injury risk off just one test at one point in time is likely to prove highly ineffective.

A potential solution to make us better able to make an informed decision around injury risk for a given athlete on a given day is to collect data more frequently. This is what the meteorologists did when improving their hurricane path predictions. While we obviously can’t expect to collect 40 million data points per day, we should probably do better than one data point per year.

A potential solution to make us better able to make an informed decision around injury risk for a given athlete on a given day is to collect data more frequently, says @craig100m. Share on X

In team sports, this is perhaps a bit more common. GPS systems and heart rate monitors are in wide use, allowing performance staff to have more data at their fingertips to inform decisions.

This data collection doesn’t have to be costly or high tech: a now-seminal 2015 paper demonstrated how subjective, self-reported measures (for example, rating of perceived exertion, or mood) were highly sensitive to changes in training load, more so than objective measures such as blood sampling or heart rate. Even just a conversation with athletes as to how they’re feeling—and observing how they move during warm-ups—can provide a useful data point for understanding how the athlete is presenting on that day.

Data from a diverse range of potential injury determinants allows us to better understand the true injury risk of our athletes, so collecting information broadly is also important. In their paper, Stern and his colleagues recommend regular collection of self-report measures exploring aspects such as:

• Life stress, anxiety, and coping skills.
• An assessment of sleep quality and quantity.
• A nutrition log.
• Sport-specific performance tests (which can likely be embedded into a pre-session warm-up).

In a second paper, Stern and his colleagues introduce a second important concept related to complexity and performance: that of state dependence. In a system—such as the human body—where state dependence exists, the interaction between variables is not static. For example, if variable 1 increases variable 2 by 50% on one occasion, a change in a different variable, variable 3, over time may mean that, in the future, variable 1 only increases variable 2 by 10%. The size of this change can be large. Sometimes, improvements in the same variables may be:

• Positively correlated (i.e., improvements in one lead to an improvement in the other).
• Negatively correlated (i.e., improvements in one lead to a worsening in the other).
• Non-correlated (i.e., there is no relationship).

Whether these variables are correlated or not depends on the overall state of the system; the relationship between them depends on other variables.

Making the Connection with Your Athletes

When it comes to considering injury risk, we typically see that increases in psychosocial stress are associated with increased injury risk. But what happens if the athlete has well-established and effective coping mechanisms? A change in this variable changes the relationship between stress and injury.

This change is most likely stable, but there are much more transient changes in a variable that could modify this relationship; a few nights of poor sleep, for example, will likely increase the sensitivity of the athlete to stress, further increasing the risk of injury. This is a further reminder that a single piece of data that is collected can only serve as a snapshot of where the athlete is in time. What we need to know, given the complexity of humans, is how the data changes over time—having this knowledge will enable us to better understand what is truly happening in the athletes we work with.

A single piece of data that is collected can only serve as a snapshot of where the athlete is IN TIME. What we need to know, given the complexity of humans, is how the data changes OVER TIME. Share on X

Based on the work of Stern and his colleagues—as well as the underlying principles of chaos theory—we can develop some rules of thumb when it comes to working with athletes.

1. We need to consider athletes as complex beings; just because we’ve seen a relationship between two variables before doesn’t mean we will see that relationship again. Furthermore, we need to remember that a multitude of different factors likely influence any apparent relationships.
2. We need to move away from static, one-shot measurements (for example, pre-season screenings) if we want to better understand complex aspects such as injury risk and performance improvements. This isn’t to say that pre-season screenings aren’t useful—they can identify key issues to work with—but having more frequent data collection allows for more regular updates around how our athletes are tracking.
3. As a wide variety of factors influence how an athlete responds to training, or how likely they are to become injured, collecting a diverse range of data sources likely improves our ability to “predict”—or, at least, make informed decisions—around how athletes are responding.

As such, it’s better to collect information from a diverse range of sources (e.g., sleep, stress, perceived recovery, movement velocity) than from very similar sources. Humans are complex biological beings; we can do better than just reducing them to a single number.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

In July 2019, Baxter Holmes wrote “These kids are ticking time bombs—the threat of youth basketball” for ESPN.com, an in-depth article on the dangers of high volumes and over-specialization too early in an athlete’s maturation. Despite being written about basketball, the epidemic Holmes identifies is a general narrative amongst all youth sports, with soccer, softball, baseball, and volleyball all demonstrating similar paths to early specificity.

As the strength and conditioning coach for the Pittsburgh Riverhounds Development Academy, I have also witnessed the growing trend among our young athletes to identify strictly with one sport at increasingly younger ages. This same perpetual cycle appears to be the norm regardless of sport: extra, position-specific skill lessons scattered around team trainings throughout the week, culminating in weekend competitions. Well-intentioned, but slightly misguided, these youth sports operate under the misconception that more is always better.

As a result, young athletes (and their parents) have entered an open arms race to acquire as much technical skill work and attend as many “elite” showcases as possible. There is, however, an important distinction between development and demonstration. Continually prioritizing games, tournaments, and showcases at the expense of holistic development too early in an athlete’s growth will likely be unsustainable—not just as a detriment from a health and wellness perspective, but also a potential limiting factor as it relates to higher levels of skill acquisition. A lack of exposure to diverse motor patterns early can stunt growth late. As complexity continues to grow for increased sporting mastery, a lack of foundational motor function can inhibit further technical progress.

What athletes once organically acquired by playing different sports over different seasons now has to be achieved through well-thought-out, systematic performance training, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

What athletes once organically acquired by playing different sports over different seasons now has to be achieved through well-thought-out, systematic performance training. As a result, I have comprised a hit list of both general and special preparedness exercises that not only build resilience, but also provide an enriched motor environment to sustain healthy, long-term growth in the one-sport youth specialist.

Specificity of Preparedness

Preparation training should be effective, efficient, and nondisruptive to the two tasks being prepared for: training both to enhance performance in the specific sport and to fill motor gaps left by early specificity. Throughout the pursuit of fulfilling these two goals, performance coaches need to remain mindful of the fact that we are not trying to replace one sport for another, nor are any trophies won for excessively fatiguing athletes or inducing unnecessary soreness. There is tremendous value in being succinct, and like most things in life, the simplest answer is often the best.

The off-field physical preparation process should start by developing broad athletic principles and gradually narrow as progress is made toward more desirable traits. The difference between general preparedness (GPP) and more specific preparation (SPP) can be subtle. From a broader perspective, general preparedness exercises teach global concepts under minimal stress.

Maintaining a comparatively low magnitude and preparing for what is to come is of greatest consequence. Special preparatory exercises come closer to the velocities and stresses experienced during play, and the direction of the application of force also takes on greater significance. Some examples include:

• General prep: Basic strength work and in-place jumps.
• Special prep: More elastic and develops sustained, rhythmic horizontal displacement in all planes of motion.
• SPP: Skipping, bounding, lateral shuffling, and sprinting.

Good physical preparation should also include an appropriate blend of tension and torque-oriented exercises with special consideration given to the force-velocity relationship reflected by the sport itself. Increased time under tension is most associated with developing strength, and building strength is necessary regardless of the sport to enhance an athlete’s ability to produce force and increase their resilience to injury.

Video 1. Split jumps exemplify the subtle differences in GPP and SPP exercises, as these in-place jumps include a sustained, rhythmic element.

Rate-of-force themed exercises train an athlete to quickly demonstrate their strength. For nearly all ball-court athletes, most of their preparedness should reflect this. To play explosive and fast on the competitive field, you must facilitate those same attributes in the training hall by moving as dynamically as possible with zero external resistance and lifting light-to-moderate loads as explosively as possible (Verkhoshansky & Siff, 264.) Repetitive efforts and maximum efforts also must be done, but not as frequently. This general ethos is the foundation on which the Houndsspeed philosophy is built.

Radcliffe-Inspired Unilateral Jump Progression

High-Powered Plyometrics by Jim Radcliffe and Robert Farantinos was first recommended to me by Carl Valle, and it did not disappoint. Like the more widely known Supertraining by Verkhoshansky and Siff, High Powered Plyometrics delivers a highly scientific approach to speed and power development but in a much simpler, reader-friendly way. Loaded with logical and highly effective progressions specific to nearly every sport, this book is on a short list of must reads.

In particular, the single leg jump progression presented by Radcliffe and Farantinos satisfied both my desire for simplicity and the need to develop multiple traits concurrently, such as:

• Power.
• Speed.
• Proprioception.
• The ability to rapidly decelerate.

Video 2. Single-leg tuck jumps are part of a unilateral plyometric progression inspired by Coach Jim Radcliffe.

The best exercises are able to build the greatest number of attributes by the simplest means, especially when physically preparing an athlete who is already dedicating significant time and energy to the technical and tactical aspects of their sport. The one-leg jump progression certainly checks many boxes. Beginning with in-place single response efforts in which the landing is valued just as much as the takeoff, this is progressed by imposing greater speed and motor complexity before building out to more elastic single leg leaps in which the center of mass is displaced.

The best exercises are able to build the greatest number of attributes by the simplest means…and the one-leg jump progression certainly checks many boxes, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

I appreciate this progression because of the smooth intensification from general characteristics to more specific desirables with a steady rise in both stress and skill, while simultaneously promoting strong pelvic position. Strong pelvic control is essential and an underlying theme that is a requisite for efficient movement. The single-leg jump progression is also fantastic at recruiting the opposite glute and hip simultaneously, which has strong carryover to good sprint mechanics. The progression is simple, but not to be confused with easy. It looks something like this:

1. Single-leg pogos
2. Split jumps
3. Scissor jumps
4. Double scissor jumps
5. Single-leg tuck jump (in place)
6. Single-leg leap (distance)
7. Lateral single leg hop

As with any power- or speed-dominant exercise, low volume and high intensity is best. Approximately 4-8 total jumps per set and 2-3 total sets per exercise is optimal.

Videos 3 and 4. Progressing from the scissor jump to the double scissor jump.

Horizontal Skips, Jumps, Bounds

While the vertical jump might receive the most attention when it comes to assessing power, it only tells a comparatively small part of the story as it relates to soccer athletes specifically. Being able to rapidly generate force to overcome both inertia and gravity will always have value, but the vertical jump is a singular moment that illustrates brutish strength more than fluid, rhythmic athleticism.

For this reason, I value continuous horizontal jumps and bounds as better indicators of athleticism more than one singular vertical jump, because these movements demonstrate how well an athlete can create and sustain horizontal momentum. Even for more vertical-oriented sports like volleyball and basketball, horizontal jumps, skips, and bounds still have great value for motor development.

Even for more vertical-oriented sports like volleyball and basketball, horizontal jumps, skips, and bounds still have great value for motor development, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Although debatable, speed is perhaps the most coveted physical attribute among all ball-court sports, so preparatory exercises that develop and ultimately demonstrate horizontal displacement are better barometers of athletic success. Specifically, the triple broad jump and six-step alternating bound have much greater carryover to short accelerations, and academy athletes use objective measures like those the Probotics Just Jump Mat, Freelap Timing System, and a simple tape measure provide as evidence to support a heightened sense of value to horizontal efforts.

Through the years, I have found one of the most effective and time-efficient ways to develop horizontal displacement is to take the more extensive, less stressful skill development exercises such as marching, skipping, prancing, and galloping and impose specific ground contact limitations while simultaneously asking the athletes to just simply cover more ground. Imposing limitations on ground contacts serves two purposes:

1. Drives intent and forces the athlete to consider every ground contact.
2. Allows the coach to monitor volume.

This requires no quantitative measurements (although the movements can be measured), and embedding these within warm-ups for nearly every session adds up fast and exposes the young athlete to the feeling of “getting out” with a variety of cadences and movement strategies, providing the necessary diversity to be drawn upon later.

Stairs, hills, and resisted variations of the same exercises are also fantastic at teaching horizontal displacement—these mitigate the stress on the athlete as well by limiting the velocities achieved (and resultant forces). To that end, these variations are great precursors to flat surfaces, not the other way around. This is precisely why physics matter and why it is important to not confuse perceived exertion with actual effect.

Lateral Bounds

Complete preparation for all athletes should also include a sound approach to incorporating multiplanar movements. This is more necessary now than in previous generations because of the lack of movement diversity as result of the increased early specificity. Intricacies in carryover from sport to sport—like footwork in soccer translating to a more efficient lateral shuffle while playing defense in basketball or a wide receiver’s ability to better “high-point” a football because of rebounding in basketball—are now missing. Besides larger concerns—such as appropriate energy system development—coaches must also focus on smaller, more specific details such as direction of force and the planes of motion that reflect the needs of the sport being prepared for.

Lateral movements are potent developers of the glutes, hips, and adductors, so they are of great value to all athletes, but even more so for the multidirectional athlete. This is where I feel more traditional standards in strength and conditioning can lead a coach or athlete astray by perhaps overvaluing linear (sagittal) and vertical forces at the expense of lateral (frontal), rotational (transverse), and horizontal forces. For me, management and the slow intensification of stresses in the frontal plane begin with general strengthening exercises like lateral squat and lunge variations and is slow cooked to lateral marches, skips, hops, jumps, and ultimately bounds.

Admittedly, in the not-too-distant past, I feel I likely spent too much time developing the lower-stress lateral squat and lunge variations when my athletes would have been better served skipping, hopping, and jumping laterally. Lateral movements in conjunction with unilateral strength and rate of force development are the foundation for how I now prepare our athletes for multiplanar agility.

Lateral movements in conjunction with unilateral strength and rate of force development are the foundation for how I now prepare our athletes for multiplanar agility, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

With nearly unlimited degrees of freedom within the game itself, I am not the biggest fan of choreographed change of direction exercises. These exercises are great to develop broader concepts in the youngest athletes, but beyond the earliest stages of development, drills with predetermined paths lack realism. As result, I prefer to prepare our athletes for the forces and stresses they will encounter within the game and let their technical training and intuition develop the specificity necessary.

Video 5. Like the linear skips, jumps, and bounds mentioned earlier, lateral bounds teach an athlete to displace their center of mass, but in an entirely different plane of motion.

With that said, lateral bounding and its variations win the day as they relate to imposing stress in the frontal plane. Developing lateral bounds begins with single response efforts in which landing with a soft knee is emphasized and then progressed to fluid back and forth lateral displacements where force needs to be absorbed and quickly recreated in the opposite direction.

This exercise is harder to quantify because of the rhythmic back and forth nature, so simple qualitative assessments do just as well. Flat discs, tape, and lines on a field can provide good visuals for the athlete and coach alike as to how much separation they are creating with each bound.

As with all my plyometrics—regardless of intensity—I encourage our athletes to rely on feeling the ground as opposed to having to see the ground. Over time, this builds a tremendous sense of kinesthetic awareness. I feel very strongly this not only enhances performance but is also important in preventing injury. As an athlete becomes stronger, lateral bounding can be progressed to Polish boxes and asymmetrical surfaces to create subtle variances in both movement pattern and force.

Med Ball Mayhem

Bending, twisting, whipping, throwing, and catching are all base level motor skills every athlete should possess, regardless of sport. Medicine balls are a great tool for both developing and demonstrating mastery of all these athletic attributes; they can also be used extensively to develop low-stress strength and rate of force while having the potential to be “dialed up” to intense ballistic efforts.

Progress in these traits can be easily objectified with increasing med ball loads and distances on a measuring tape. Even though our field-playing soccer athletes (non-goalies) do not have to throw and catch, these two specific skills are great at developing upper body coordination. Over my tenure with the Riverhounds, it has become painfully apparent that as gifted as some of our young soccer players are with a ball at their feet, they are equally as deficient if instructed to catch that same ball with their hands.

Admittedly, this initially flew under my radar, as I was quick to dismiss it as unimportant. Time and experience have proven otherwise, and I share this in the hope that I can help others avoid the same mistake I made. Lack of upper body motor control is a large void that will negatively impact:

• Speed.
• Efficiency at submaximal speeds.
• The acquisition of more advanced technical capabilities.

Quite simply, max speed, the resultant speed reserve, and advanced technical prowess are full body efforts—therefore, a lack of upper body strength and coordination will eventually become a limiting factor. To combat this, simple partner drills that initially only require handoff exchanges such as med ball over/unders, half twists, and full twists eventually can be progressed to light tosses accentuating the same motor skills. I do not want my athletes catching max effort intensive throws, so I reserve those for expressions of starting strength and rate of force only.

Max speed, the resultant speed reserve, and advanced technical prowess are full body efforts—therefore, a lack of upper body strength and coordination will eventually become a limiting factor. Share on X

I do, however, like to measure distances and loads on all intensive throws because I am a firm believer in that which gets measured gets improved. Throws of all varieties—like underhand forward, underhand backward, chest, rotational, and overhead—are great ways to monitor power development in an environment that more closely resembles a field-based athlete’s natural habitat. It is also important to consider utilizing throwing and catching as a tool to develop skill in tracking flighted balls. This is essential for field players timing headers, goalies managing crosses, and the entire synchronization of set pieces.

Again, I missed on this in my younger coaching days—what I mistakenly thought was innate was likely something that must be developed. Growing up playing basketball and baseball, reading and quickly assessing the trajectory of a ball off a rim or a bat was an acquired skill that undoubtedly assisted in my timing of headers. For those who specialize too soon, this becomes a glaring weakness in their aerial game. Fortunately, it is an easy skill to develop with a limited investment of time, energy, and equipment.

Five minutes a few times a week with a partner and some sort of ball (tennis, whiffle, lacrosse, football) is all that is needed. Over-the-shoulder catches like a centerfielder running down a ball hit into the gap should be the end goal, and injecting randomness to the throws is encouraged to allow an athlete to experience varied trajectories and cover different distances.

Relative Strength “Big Three”: Pull-Ups, Dips, and Single-Leg Squats

Too much strength will never be a weakness, but misappropriating time, energy, and precious adaptive reserves to continually pursue strength just might be. Not all strengths are created equal, so it is important to know the demands of your sport. While all sports require a well-rounded approach to both absolute and relative strength development, it is important to know what is most valuable to you and your athletes so you can “lean” accordingly.

For instance, my experience has shown that relative strength is of slightly greater value to my soccer athletes than absolute strength. Conversely, the opposite would likely be true for an offensive lineman in football. I develop and maintain absolute strength for our soccer athletes with conventional squats, deadlifts, presses, and pulls using basic progressive overload principles. Appropriate strength work should supplement on-field movement by enhancing an athlete’s resilience and force-producing capabilities.

Despite being the most general of all forms of preparation, quality strength work should also establish principles that will carry over to more specific iterations of prep such as power and speed exercises. Specifically, posture is critical, particularly as it relates to pelvic position. If the load or speed begins to negatively affect posture, it is dialed back until the athlete is capable.

One of the biggest things I have noticed with soccer athletes is that there is a point of diminishing returns as it relates to absolute strength, but seemingly unlimited performance potential as it relates to relative strength. This is exactly why I chose to highlight pull-ups, dips, and one-legged squats. These specific exercises demonstrate mastery over how well an athlete can move their own body mass and typically present some of the most difficult bodyweight exercises, particularly for young athletes.

One of the biggest things with soccer athletes is a point of diminishing returns as it relates to absolute strength, but seemingly unlimited performance potential as it relates to relative strength. Share on X

In my pursuit of bang for the buck exercises, time invested in these full-body displays of relative strength render the pursuit of more remedial exercises a waste of time (unless, of course, those exercises are in fact an intermediate or developmental step to a pull-up, dip, or single-leg squat). To clarify, I value these three tasks because of their higher degree of difficulty and the innate core stability, balance, and total body awareness necessary to demonstrate them.

More traditional relative strength tests such as the push-up and sit-up test fall short on this front. They could be a means of assistance in the development of the “Big Three,” but not the end goals themselves. I want my athletes to be able to perform 10 strict reps for all the exercises and on both legs for the single-leg squat. If athletes have not yet achieved this standard, keep developing; and if they have, add load.

Sprint

They say to save the best for last, so now I must mention the most delicate and difficult skill to teach: sprinting. The total body coordination and the stress imposed make max effort sprinting the consummate demonstration of athleticism. To optimize effectiveness, sprinting cannot be done haphazardly. Speed work should be done fresh, with full recovery between reps, and reps should last no longer than roughly five seconds.

Full recovery for ATP stores to replenish is widely accepted as one minute of rest for every 10 yards sprinted. Pragmatically, for a developing youth athlete, this is roughly 30-40 total yards of maximum intent, at most. Due to the potency, the total volume of sprints should be limited to approximately 150 yards per session, and sessions should only be administered two to three times a week to push progress, and always done at least once a week to maintain.

As the ultimate performance enhancer and soft tissue inoculant, the dosage and timing of dosage must to be treated with respect. Speed work should also be objectified to chart progress. For the past two years, I have used Freelap Timing for all our academy athletes’ speed sessions, as well as my personal speed sessions. Freelap is easy to transport and just as easy to quickly set up anywhere. Accuracy and precision are the two most desirable attributes of any tool used for measurement, and Freelap fills the bill on both counts.

The ‘L’ in LTAD

The era in which young multisport athletes were prevalent might be ending; and, in any case, the days of early specialization are likely here to stay. There are many challenges that accompany early specificity in young athletes, but a more imaginative approach to performance training can combat these drawbacks. I have provided specific insight to the limitations I have experienced in working with youth soccer athletes and the methods I have used to try to address those gaps.

There are many challenges that accompany early specificity in young athletes, but a more imaginative approach to performance training can combat these drawbacks, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Every scenario and sport will have its own subtleties and nuances that require attention, so there is no right or wrong. I am merely encouraging critical thought to fill the voids and supplement accordingly, as I feel strongly it is our job within the performance field to identify and fix problems and not just identify them. I actually look forward to watching the growth and maturation of young athletes who are extra passionate about their craft, as they will push the boundaries of what we thought was possible in each individual sport—that is, provided we do our jobs by keeping them healthy and fully prepared.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Verkhoshansky, Y.V. and Siff, M.C. Supertraining. 1999. p. 264.

Radcliffe, J.C. and Farentinos, R.C. High-Powered Plyometrics. 1999.

Athletes need to be in peak condition all year round. This doesn’t just mean focusing on muscular development, strength, and speed; you must also ensure that the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems are primed to the perfection of a diesel engine, pumping blood and oxygen to muscles as they continually strive to push the limits of what is physically possible for the human body.

Our hearts are the hardest working muscle in our bodies, and cardio workouts are the key to improved function, as they make the heart go beyond what it’s used to. An effective way for athletes to incorporate cardio into their workout regime is to train on an e-bike.

An effective way for athletes to incorporate cardio into their workout regime is to train on an e-bike. Share on X

Staying Fit On an E-Bike for Athletes

Thanks in part to electric bikes, cycling is seeing a resurgence around the world among the general public. E-bikes are typically recommended for those looking for a recreational sport activity or who are just getting started on their fitness journey. However, athletes and advanced bikers can also benefit from them in many ways!

1. Increases the Efficiency of Your Heart

An efficient heart can pump more blood into the muscles with fewer beats per minute. Since blood is the medium through which essential nutrients, including oxygen, are delivered to our muscles, a more efficient heart directly translates into better athletic performance.

E-bike workouts are a great form of cardio because they get your heart rate going. Contrary to popular belief, they offer the same cardiovascular health benefits as a conventional bicycle. While e-bikes do come with a handy pedal-assist feature, it doesn’t mean you won’t pedal at all.

Riding an e-bike usually takes half your energy compared to what it would have taken you on a pedal bike. So you will be burning a large number of calories but not to the point of exhausting yourself completely.

Since an e-bike takes less effort, it has a calorie burn rate that’s closer to what you would get from walking. That said, you could change your speed, ride on an economy setting, or add some ankle weights to increase the intensity of your workout.

2. Improves Your VO2 Max

One of the most important parameters for measuring athletic performance is VO2 max. Put simply, it is the maximum amount of oxygen your body can consume during a workout. Since oxygen is the fuel that the body burns to produce energy, a greater VO2 max directly translates into better athletic performance—especially in sports that require a greater intensity of physical activity.

One of the most important parameters for measuring athletic performance is VO2 max. Share on X

Here’s the interesting thing, though: professional cyclists have some of the highest VO2 max levels on the planet. The Norwegian cyclist Oskar Svendsen, for instance, is reported to have the highest VO2 max ever recorded in a human being at 97.5 mL/Kg/min (the average human being has a VO2 max range of 40-45).

The list of highest recorded VO2 maximums has a disproportionately high number of cyclists at the top, with three-time Tour de France winner Greg Le Mond recording a VO2 max of 92.5 and the American professional cyclist Lance Armstrong recording 85.

Of course, not every athlete is training to be a professional cyclist, nor do they need these superhuman levels of oxygen burning capacity. However, practically all athletes can benefit from higher VO2 max levels, and cycling is one of the best ways to improve it.

3. Puts Less Strain on Your Joints

Athletes are more susceptible to joint pain, especially in the knees, due to excessive workouts and constant fitness training. Luckily, electric bikes can help you stay fit without putting much strain on your joints and muscles.

Electric bikes can help you stay fit without putting much strain on your joints and muscles. Share on X

Think of an e-bike workout like swimming—you work your heart, you burn a lot of calories, and you work your muscles—all without putting a lot of strain on your joints. Another close comparison would be an elliptical trainer that delivers benefits while going easy on the joints. However, unlike a stationary elliptical trainer, you can actually take your e-bike out for a spin or even commute to work.

The pedal-assist feature makes you move faster without pedaling too hard, taking the strain away from your knees. The throttle is another component that uses extra electricity to push your bike automatically ahead so you can skip pedaling altogether if you’re exhausted or riding uphill.

This way, e-bikes ensure that athletes still get a great workout without damaging their joints or worsening an ongoing knee problem.

4. Makes Training on Your Commute Easy

Any experienced cyclist knows that you need to train as often as possible to extend your range. It can be hard to get at least two to three hours of moderate-intensity workouts every week with a busy schedule, but commuting to work on a bicycle makes it possible. However, riding an e-bike to work has some added advantages over a traditional cycle.

Riding an e-bike to work has some added advantages over a traditional cycle. Share on X

E-bikes come with several modes that you can switch between based on how much you’re willing to exert yourself. You can seamlessly change from riding without using the battery to using the throttle if you’re tired or experiencing muscular fatigue. This means you can easily opt for longer rides and won’t be exhausted by the time you reach your office.

5. Aids Weight Loss

Athletes must be a certain weight for specific sports like gymnastics, boxing, and martial arts. If you play these sports and are trying to qualify for a weight division, e-biking can help you shed the excess pounds in time for a tournament.

As stated earlier, e-bikes allow you to burn calories and fat nearly as effectively as a conventional bike does—even with the pedal-assist mode on. Of course, to reach your desired weight goal, it’s important to pay attention to your diet as well.

6. Stimulates Your Muscles

Athletes looking to train their legs every day will find that cycling is a great exercise. If you’ve observed a professional cyclist closely, you will know that they have very well-developed leg muscles, including quadriceps and calves. It not only strengthens your lower body and eliminates any signs of stiffness but can also help athletes build better overall endurance.

Just like a conventional bike, every pedal stroke on an e-bike stimulates your quads and hamstrings, one of the major muscle groups in the human body. Since e-bikes are a little heavier, they also help you lose weight and tone your calf muscles. In fact, an electric bike can exercise your glutes, biceps, triceps, and abs, too.

Just like a conventional bike, every pedal stroke on an e-bike stimulates your quads and hamstrings, one of the major muscle groups in the human body. Share on X

7. Boosts Your Riding Time

Getting an e-bike means athletes can ride more often and for greater distances. Most people find that their weekly ride times increase as cycling becomes easier and more fun. The various e-bike modes allow you to keep your workouts flexible and gradually enhance your speed, range, and overall performance.

8. Encourages You to Explore New Terrains

Remember that childhood thrill of exploration when you went around the neighborhood on your bicycle with the wind in your hair, the sun on your back, and the world looking brand new, ready to be explored?

An e-bike is a perfect way to return to that childhood joy of cycling, as unlike a conventional bicycle, it makes the transition from four wheels to two a lot smoother. Whether you’re an avid mountain biker or just want to make your training experiences more fun, an e-bike is perfect for expeditions that blend the thrill of exploration with the fun of cycling.

Based on the motor that you use, e-bikes make it possible for athletes to explore different routes across a variety of terrains. Electric bikes with a larger motor allow for better control over rocky and slippery surfaces. They also give you greater power so you can traverse up a steep incline.

E-Bikes for Sports Rehab

Sports rehab helps injured athletes get back to training after an injury without putting them at risk. E-bikes are great for sports rehab as they allow you to exercise without putting much strain on the body, helping you build your body back safely.

E-bikes are great for sports rehab as they allow you to exercise without putting much strain on the body. Share on X

To start with this rehab, you might use the e-bike first to go through the cycling motion and slowly use it. You can rely on the motor and use as little energy of your own as you want. Once the body gets used to those motions, you can gradually reduce the motor power and start generating your own strength, bringing the body back to use.

Getting back to doing physical activity after an injury can be a huge addition to an athlete’s life as it brings back momentum and joy that they might have felt was lost. This kind of progressive sports rehab plan will help the athlete achieve whatever goal they are aiming for and get back to their original strength levels.

Personalized Workouts

Any workout depends on how frequently one does it and how much effort is used. E-bikes are great in the sense that one can adjust the level of assistance they require. This makes the cardio intense if the setting chosen is lower. Hence, you will use a lot more force, put in more effort, and give your heart a great and powerful workout.

Do keep in mind that riding Class 2 e-bikes does not require pedaling since a throttle propels them. So, for cardio workouts, your best option is to go for a Class 1 (low speed) or Class 3 (high speed) e-bike, both of which require pedaling.

E-bikes make a great option for all ages and bodies. So even though normal pedal bikes are more demanding physically, the amount of time spent on an e-bike is usually higher, which means sufficient cardio workouts.

E-bikes make a great option for all ages and bodies. Share on X

High-Intensity Workouts

High impact workouts can help athletes raise their heart rate and oxygen levels, and quickly burn a lot of calories. Training at a higher intensity level means you control the effort you put in while maintaining a higher intensity than with a normal bike.

It’s possible to enjoy a high-intensity interval ride on an e-bike by riding up a steep hill without any pedal assistance for short intervals.

But the pedal assist feature of an e-bike can help you achieve a heart rate ideal for trimming fat or increasing aerobic activity, hitting new levels of progress and personal records. All of this has a big impact both on your rides and your fitness level.

Low-Impact Workouts

E-bikes offer a low-impact exercise that is easier on the body without compromising your fitness levels. Athletes that want a more relaxed workout can leverage the various modes on an e-bike and choose when to decrease or increase pedal assist.

E-bikes offer a low-impact exercise that is easier on the body without compromising your fitness levels. Share on X

Pedaling your e-bike on a flat surface for a long time can increase the volume of oxygen in your muscles and elevate your endurance levels without putting too much pressure on your joints.

These workouts translate well to sprinting. It will help in the last part of your sprint or the climb whenever a new challenge arrives.

Example of an E-Bike Workout

You can design many types of workouts for your e-bike. One of those is a simple cardiovascular workout, which requires constant pedaling for 20+ minutes. This makes your heart rate pump blood at the maximum pressure and increases the uptake of oxygen.

Here’s a sample cardio workout that you can use to get started:

• A few minutes of easy riding (approx. 5 minutes)
• 10 sets of 20-25 seconds with hard effort
• 30-40 seconds of recovery
• Gradually ease the pedal (approx. 5 minutes)
• Pedal for 20 minutes with moderate intensity
• Take a 15-second sprint jumping out of the saddle
• Final 5-minute easy pedal

If you do this, then congrats—you’ve done a comprehensive 45-minute cardio workout on your e-bike!

Conclusion

Athletes and fitness training enthusiasts are always on the lookout for ways to improve their performance and efficiency, and riding an e-bike makes for the perfect physical activity or exercise that can help athletes stay fit and have fun at the same time.

E-bikes are a great tool for sports rehab and can slowly bring back physical activity and joy to an athlete’s life. They are ideal in times of injury, allowing pros and elites to practice while also letting their body heal.

You can design your own personal workouts and choose whether you want to be doing high-intensity or low-intensity workouts. All this will help you stay fit on an e-bike as an athlete.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

The basic, foundational principles of block periodization provide a solid basis for us to plan our athletes’ training. However, it’s important for a coach to understand how to evolve the block model beyond the textbook example—while still using those foundational principles—in order to truly optimize the results for our athletes. To take your block periodized plan to the next level, first it’s important to understand a couple aspects of block periodization that often get overlooked and misunderstood.

Once we nail those ideas down, figuring out how to tailor your annual periodized plan to the nuances we deal with as strength coaches is vital to our athletes’ success. For example: what differences in periodization should we make for relatively untrained and weak athletes versus trained and relatively strong athletes? And how should an off-season cycle of accumulation, transmutation, and realization phases differ from the cycle closest to the season?

Understanding two often-overlooked (but critical) concepts can help our periodized plan evolve—along with our athletes’ success.

1. Concentrated Loading: The “Backburner” Concept

I often hear a critical mistake by strength coaches: believing that training in a certain “block” means you can ONLY train that aspect of fitness. This is one of the things I see getting frequently misinterpreted about block periodization. I often hear coaches say, The problem with block periodization is that in a *true block model* you can’t sprint during a maximal strength block!

I often hear a critical mistake by strength coaches: believing that training in a certain ‘block’ means you can ONLY train that aspect of fitness, says @Trader_Flora. Share on X

Luckily, that’s not the case at all—in fact, this idea is shot down by the pioneers of block periodization.

Block periodization, mainly coined by Issurin in the 1980s, was largely based off of work by Verkoshansky, in his Conjugative Successive System.¹ During each block of training, a certain fitness characteristic is emphasized while others are de-emphasized (but not excluded altogether); this is the concept of creating a “concentrated load.”² In addition to Verkoshanky’s definition of a concentrated load, Dr. Michael “Doc” Stone emphasizes the importance of “combination training”—a method of programming higher-velocity movements during strength blocks³. This can include the use of:

• Hi/Lo programming model: “Lower intensity days,” where load is decreased so the speed of movement (and most likely power output) increases.
• Down sets: A set with lowered load that follows the working sets; again, to increase velocity of the movement.
• Sprints and plyometrics
  • Ballistic training also has been shown to have a positive influence on performance^4-6 (think everything from plyos to loaded jumps to Olympic lifts).
• Complexes and contrast sets

Again, all during a strength block³. This is often referred to as “surfing the force velocity curve.” Combination training has been shown to be effective in producing a wider variety of speed and power adaptations than isolated heavy training^7-10, which is important for athletes who require speed and power for their sport.

*Key Point: During block periodization, you simply emphasize the goal characteristic, while you de-emphasize the rest (not eliminate them altogether.) Think of it this way—as you prioritize one training variable, you put the others on the back burner. You don’t kick the other fitness characteristics completely to the curb, you simply give more attention to the “concentrated load,” the main focus of that block of training. Those characteristics you momentarily de-emphasized will get emphasized later on, just at a more appropriate time of the year. This is often termed “multivariable” or “multidirectional” block periodization and is ideal for team sport athletes who rely on multiple different fitness characteristics in order to excel in their sport.

Residual Training Effects and Phase Potentiation

It’s important to note that there is a benefit of cycling through training blocks in a sequential manner. This is partially based on the concept of residual training effects (RTEs).¹¹ RTEs indicate that the positive adaptations from training remain for some time after training is completed.

For example, maximal strength gains remain for about 30 days post-training for maximal strength.¹¹ You can see how RTEs help justify the “back burner” and “concentrated load” concepts we just discussed: An athlete doesn’t have to consistently train for every aspect of fitness and instead can prioritize some time for training other training characteristics, such as speed and power, without fear of losing maximal strength.

RTEs allow for the main benefit of sequentially planning your training blocks: phase potentiation. Phase potentiation means the adaptations from one training phase have an additional positive impact on the subsequent phases of training.

Phase potentiation means the adaptations from one training phase have an additional positive impact on the subsequent phases of training, says @Trader_Flora. Share on X

For example, a strength endurance phase—with emphasis on improving body composition and work capacity—may potentiate a sport-specific hypertrophy phase undergoing heavy sets of mainly 5-6 repetitions, targeting an increase in type II muscle fibers.¹² Further, this increase in type II fiber CSA could benefit the following training block, which targets maximal strength.¹² Finally, an increase in maximal force production can then benefit the adaptation seen in a realization phase focusing on speed and power.^{4, 13-15}

The realization phase may also help transfer the newfound force production into the athlete’s sport performance, as maximal force production often expresses a delayed training effect.¹⁶ This is how one phase of training may improve your adaptation in the next phase of training, leading to huge improvements in important performance characteristics—ideally, you plan to “peak” at the right time of year!

Variation Throughout the Annual Plan

Before we get into varying the periodized plan for different athletes, let’s touch generally on how the annual plan should (usually) evolve throughout the year.

Let’s use a hypothetical annual plan so we can discuss the variance of the block cycles.

At first glance, we notice how we cycle through sequences of accumulation, transmutation, and realization periods repeatedly throughout the year, before we get to the competition period. Basic block model stuff. But, if you look closely, you may notice that there are some subtle differences in blocks between the first cycle and the cycles that follow.

In general: the first accumulation phase will most often be the longest, most substantial of the accumulation phases you complete throughout the year. This makes logical sense for a couple reasons.

1. This concept fits the mold of your typical off-season training/GPP. When our athletes are this far out from competition, the priority of training often shifts toward the weight room. Each athlete has only so much fatigue they can endure, and during the off-season, we as strength coaches are afforded a larger slice of that fatigue pie.
2. Practices for sport are most often less intense: we see fewer scrimmages, more individual/skill work, less CNS usage at practice, and less time spent on their sport. Here we can take advantage of this emphasis shift and really work on building superb fitness in the weight room. This is especially done during the first accumulation phase, which consists of higher volumes, and is aimed primarily at strength endurance, body composition, and work ^{17, 11} (Some of the recent work by Schoenfield et al. dives into how hypertrophy is best established through relatively higher volumes, although a range probably exists.^{18, 19})

In contrast, look at the third cycle’s accumulation phase: much shorter and less dense. This may resemble the typical block model idea of “reestablishing the base.” As we get closer to season, sport coaches get the larger share of the fatigue pie as practice starts ramping up. Scrimmage frequencies increase, hours on the field/court increase, and so does CNS usage. As strength coaches, we don’t have the time or fatigue share to implement another long, super-strenuous strength endurance block.

This is one of the key principles of block periodization: capitalizing on the fatigue fitness paradigm and RTEs by returning to accumulation phases throughout the annual plan, says @Trader_Flora. Share on X

Instead, we take just enough time to reestablish fitness and prevent detraining. This is one of the key principles of block periodization: capitalizing on the fatigue fitness paradigm and RTEs by returning to accumulation phases throughout the annual plan. You can’t train general fitness characteristics all year ’round—it’s too fatiguing. But you can’t exclude them forever, or the athletes will lose the adaptations made from these previous blocks. Therefore, during that last cycle of blocks, the shortened accumulation phase is programmed 1-3 months out from the season (eliminating excess fatigue at competition), and then we quickly start moving into the transmutation and realization phases, because—and here’s the real kicker—those phases train the variables more related to sport!

2. More Emphasis Gets Placed on the Realization Phase Closer to Season

Around the time of the season starting, we increase emphasis on the realization phase—as we know, these variables are the most closely related to sport performance. It’s time to maximize the power output in our athletes and increase speed, in addition to reducing excess fatigue generated in the weight room. This is the time of year to spend more effort and energy on increasing the variables related to performance, because this is the time the athletes need it most!

In order to achieve adaptations in speed and power, we often sharply decrease volume of training, along with decreasing load, which increases the speed of the movement.^{13, 20, 21} Suarez et al. (2019) discuss and provide evidence for Verkhoshansky’s principle of “Dynamic Correspondence,” in which several factors should be considered in increasing the transfer of training to sport. These factors include:²²

• Amplitude and direction of movements.
• Accentuated regions of force production.
• Dynamics of effort.
• Rate and time of maximum force production.
• Regimen of muscular work.

The realization phase is additionally important because of the delayed training effect of strength. Strength is an important vehicle for many factors (including RFD, power, speed) and is especially important in weaker athletes^{4, 13-15}, yet it takes time for our system to learn how to synchronize, coordinate, and express that newfound force production in high-velocity movements.¹⁶ So, the realization phase is a great time to help speed up that learning curve and increase the transfer of training to sport.

The realization phase is more heavily emphasized as we near the season—you can think of it as a spectrum of emphasis and density throughout the year, with accumulation phases holding a higher priority in the off-season and realization phases taking the lead in the preseason. If you remember how we discussed concentrated loading, one quality gets emphasized while the others get de-emphasized, but not eliminated altogether. For example, of course you’re going to want to maintain muscle CSA/tissue quality during a realization phase, it’s just placed on the backburner (maintenance) as strength/power become the main focuses for improvement.

During the off-season, the realization phase might not just be shorter—it might even vary in composition. The typical realization phase dedicated to power production would usually be found in the preseason. But, assuming your team doesn’t compete in games that count toward its record at the end of off-season GPP, you may prioritize the need to gain maximal strength, instead of having an entire block dedicated solely to power during the off-season. You can do this by programming a realization phase dedicated to strength/maximal force production (check out the chart below). Remember, if you use combination training, you can most likely increase strength AND power!

When you look at the focus of the blocks in a cycle, you see how the off-season resembles the typical GPP (prioritizes hypertrophy, strength endurance, work capacity, and maximal strength), where the next cycles represent a SPP and preseason, geared toward preparing for games (strength, power, and speed).

Of course, you have to know the rules before you bend them. This can vary amongst different situations, sports, and individual athletes—especially the advanced athletes. So let’s talk about that: how the block periodized plan can differ from athlete to athlete, based on their needs.

Individualization

I think we can all agree, a long, lanky freshman who squats just over 1x his body weight (BW) should probably be training a little differently than a junior who has filled out with some lean muscle mass and squats nearly 2x his BW.

So, how do we tweak the block periodized plan to fit the needs of each athlete?

Priority: Requires Basic Strength (Low-Hanging Fruit)

Our first hypothetical athlete has a very young training age and an estimated back squat 1RM of 185 pounds (which isn’t much more than his body weight of 165 pounds, despite being 6 feet tall). You get the picture.

*For the sake of the discussion, let’s assume the athlete has mastered movement quality already, and we’re ready to move on to handling some load.*

As mentioned, strength is a vehicle¹⁵ that leads to power adaptations. It has been shown that relatively untrained athletes increase power variables just as much through strength training as power training alone. ^3,13,14 This is why we can mostly agree that building a good strength base is the low-hanging fruit for younger, untrained athletes.

For this athlete, let’s prioritize just that: building a strength base. A good secondary goal might be building some lean muscle mass. It’s pretty common (and logical) that weaker, young athletes lack this along with their strength deficiency. Not only should that increase in muscle mass help improve strength, but hopefully it can help build some resiliency in the athlete.

With these goals in mind, here’s the first practical application of the annual plan:

• Since the priority is the low-hanging fruit of building baseline strength, we don’t have to necessarily isolate entire blocks to training power. Strength blocks will likely help increase power just as well.
  • Of course, we’ll still include combination training of “Hi/Lo” days to promote good fatigue management and include sprints and plyometrics to aid in power production.^3,7-10

Now that we have our goal in mind, we can reverse engineer the training process for our young, untrained, relatively weak athlete:

We can still see how these blocks fit the block periodization model, progressing from general to specific in regard to our goals. Additionally, one phase still potentiates the next, as increases in lean muscle mass and work capacity may help potentiate strength gains. And, of course, we can repeat this cycle after the three blocks are completed. This will help reestablish the base and continue building fitness in the form of lean muscle mass and work capacity. Another block spent building the base should additionally help promote further gains in strength during the ensuing strength blocks.

Priority: Power Development (More Advanced Athlete)

Our next athlete may best resemble a rising junior or senior that has been in your program for some time. Not only does he have several years’ experience under his belt, he’s built quite a strength base. He already back squats 2x his bodyweight at a nice and lean 210 pounds. He plays a power/speed sport (let’s say baseball).

Unlike our last athlete, there’s probably a diminished return on investment for setting our #1 priority as increasing his maximal force production. First off, how long will it take to increase his back squat? Five to six months of dedicated training? And how much benefit will he see on the field from the six months it took you to increase his back squat from 420 to 440?

The juice just isn’t worth the squeeze.

Instead, increasing his power output/RFD will more likely improve his on-field production. He saw significant gains over the years in power from prioritizing strength development, but as we mentioned, there’s a diminishing return here. Therefore, we should approach his power output/RFD qualities directly.

Because we know strength is a vehicle, we won’t disregard it completely, but we’ll put more emphasis on power. Let’s reverse engineer what this might look like:

In contrast to the younger athlete, we move more quickly from maintaining the base (one of the highlights of block periodization) to maximal force production.

The programming of this transmutation max strength block is more advanced, as we may add higher loads at reps of 2, along with possibly adding contrast sets or complexes. These methods are reserved for the more advanced athlete, as it takes stronger athletes to be able to handle the workload and benefit most. If the athlete can thrive with these methods, they’re great at increasing power and speed.¹⁰

Since that’s the main goal, I’d still recommend programming a Hi/Lo model. Those lowered intensity days that resemble a strength-speed loading scheme for your primary lifts are not only a great starting point to train maximum power production, but also aid with fatigue management. (In a great review, Soriano, Jiménez, Rhea, and Marín found that peak power from the back squat may be produced at a load of 70% 1RM or less, for example.²³) Including these “Lo” days is a great segue to get used to moving loads quickly before going straight into speed-strength work (somewhere below 50% 1RM).

If our strength block focused primarily on strength and secondarily on power, our realization phase flips the emphasis, prioritizing power output. We’ve all heard a dozen different names describing this phase of training, from “strength speed” to a “power block” to “high force at high velocity.” In any case, you know the adaptation I’m talking about—you decrease the loads on your primary lifts (typically below 80%, depending upon who you ask) without increasing the reps, and emphasize the velocity of the movement in order to increase power output. Slice the percentage how you want, we’re aiming to increase power output. Of course, you can insert your preferred method of training here: clusters, VBT, you name it.

One piece of practical advice: Use the tools available to monitor power production. Not only is immediate feedback a great motivator^24-26, but the only way to make sure you’re training powerfully and at maximal intent is to measure it.

The point is, we’re training power and RFD directly. And we can do this for about 28 days (four weeks) without fear of losing maximal strength, thanks to the RTE. You may also opt to keep strength as a secondary focus, by including something fancy like of one-third pin squats (or something related) after your power work to maintain strength without the fatigue.

The point is, we’re training power and RFD directly. And we can do this for about 28 days without fear of losing maximal strength, thanks to the residual training effort (RTE), says @Trader_Flora. Share on X

This cycle of blocks more accurately reflects the needs of an athlete with a quality strength base, dedicating time to directly train and increase power and speed. Additionally, the cycles can vary throughout the annual plan like we discussed earlier. The cycle demonstrated above may be their off-season cycle, while the pre-season cycle may shift away from accumulation on the emphasis spectrum, toward an emphasis on realization.

One possible way of going about this would be by programming a brief accumulation of 5-6 reps, as work by Schoenfield et al. supports that you can see meaningful hypertrophy by using various rep ranges.^18,19 By working at the higher load ranges around 6, which is probably right in the middle of the strength and hypertrophy spectrum, we’re going to attack type II fibers more.¹² This may be more appropriate for the last cycle before season (less overall volume, more specific).

The abbreviated accumulation is followed by a transmutation of strength 3’s with considerable focus on power production, followed by a realization phase of speed-strength loading, dropping the weight, and increasing the velocity even more. You can see the difference in the last cycle of the annual plan. This may be ideal for maximum transfer of training, and it’s a good time too, since the season is about to start!

Adapting Foundations to Your Needs

It’s important to understand how you can tweak your block periodized program in different scenarios, helping your athletes to reach their various goals and better fit different parts of the annual plan. As long as you stick within the confines of the foundational block principles, you can still reap their benefits (phase potentiation, capitalizing on the fatigue fitness paradigm, etc.).

This article introduced a couple examples of how you can evolve your block-periodized model to fit different scenarios without completely throwing the foundational pillars of block periodization to the wayside. Although the specific programming methods I used as examples are just that—examples—the purpose here is get your grey matter turning and show just a few of the ways to fit your programming to the situation at hand.

By implementing your choice methods into the foundational principles of block periodization, you’ll find a useful way to organize your annual plan to match the demands of the sport.

By implementing your choice methods into the foundational principles of block periodization, you’ll find a useful way to organize your annual plan to match the demands of the sport. Share on X

There are, of course, more ways to tweak the periodized plan—in addition to the alterations I described, there may be times when you need to repeat blocks back-to-back (in order to accumulate sufficient levels of hypertrophy in a powerlifter, for example). Most of my examples were directed toward team sports, but again, this model can be tweaked for sports or different types of athletes. As I mentioned, you just have to know how to play by the rules before you bend them.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Stone, M.H. 2012. “Periodization and Programming for Strength Power Sports – the Short Reader’s Digest Version.” Invited Presentation. NSCA Coaches Conference, San Antonio TX. YouTube.

2. Verkhoshansky, Y.V. (1985): Programming and organization of training. (Translated by A. Charniga, Published by Sportivny Press, Livonia, MI, 1988.) Fizkultura i Spovt, Moscow, U.S.S.R.

3. Stone, M.H., Stone, M., and Lamont, H. “Explosive exercise.” National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal. 2008;15(4),7-15.

4. Cormie, P., McGuigan, M.R., and Newton, R.U. “Adaptations in Athletic Performance after Ballistic Power versus Strength Training.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.2010;42:1582-1598.

5. McEvoy, K.P. and Newton, R.U. “Baseball throwing speed and base running speed: The effects of ballistic resistance training.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 1998;12:216-221.

6. Newton, R.U., Kraemer, W., and Hakkinen, K. “Effects of ballistic training on preseason preparation of elite volleyball players.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1999;31(2):323-330.

7. Fatouros, I.G., Jamurtas, A.Z., Leontsini, D., et al. “Evaluation of Plyometric Exercise Training, Weight Training, and Their Combination on Vertical Jumping Performance and Leg Strength.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2000;14(4):470. doi:10.1519/1533-4287(2000)014<0470:eopetw>2.0.co;2

8. Harris, G.R., Stone, M.H., OʼBryant, H.S., Proulx, C.M., and Johnson, R.L. “Short-Term Performance Effects of High Power, High Force, or Combined Weight-Training Methods.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2000;14(1):14-20. doi:10.1519/00124278-200002000-00003.

9. Kotzamanidis, C., Chatzopoulos, D., Michailidis, C., Papaiakovou, G., and Patikas, D. “The effect of a combined high-intensity strength and speed training program on the running and jumping ability of soccer players.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2005 May;19(2):369-375. doi: 10.1519/R-14944.1. PMID: 15903377.

10. Marshall, J., Bishop, C., Turner, A.N., and Haff, G.G. “Optimal Training Sequences to Develop Lower Body Force, Velocity, Power, and Jump Height: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.” Sports Medicine. 2021;51(3).

11. Issurin, V. “Block periodization versus traditional training theory: a review.” The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 2008;48(1):65-75.

12. Travis, S.K., Ishida, A., Taber, C.B., Fry, A.C., and Stone, M.H. “Emphasizing Task-Specific Hypertrophy to Enhance Sequential Strength and Power Performance.” Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2020;5(76). doi:10.3390/jfmk5040076.

13. Cormie, P., McGuigan, M.R., and Newton, R.U. “Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 2—training considerations for improving maximal power production.” Sports Medicine. 2011;41(2):125+.

14. James, L.P., Haff, G.G., Kelly, V.G., Connick, M.J., Hoffman, B.W., and Beckman, E.M. “The impact of strength level on adaptations to combined weightlifting, plyometric, and ballistic training.” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2018;28(5):1494-1505.

15. Suchomel, T.J., Nimphius, S., and Stone, M.H. “The Importance of Muscular Strength in Athletic Performance.” Sports Medicine. 2016;46(10):1419-1449. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0486-0.

16. Burnie, L., Barratt, P., Davids, K., Stone, J., Worsfold, P., and Wheat, J. “Coaches’ philosophies on the transfer of strength training to elite sports performance.” International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching. 2018;13(5):729-736.

17. DeWeese, B.H, Hornsby, G., Stone, M.E., and Stone, M.H. “The training process: Planning for strength–power training in track and field. Part 1: Theoretical aspects,” Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2015;4(4):308-317.

18. Schoenfeld, B.J., Peterson, M.D., Ogborn, D., Contreras, B., and Sonmez, G.T. “Effects of Low- vs. High-Load Resistance Training on Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy in Well-Trained Men.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2015;29:2954-2963.

19. Schoenfeld, B.J., Grgic, J., Van Every, D.W., and Plotkin, D.L. “Loading Recommendations for Muscle Strength, Hypertrophy, and Local Endurance: A Re-Examination of the Repetition Continuum.” Sports. 2021;9(32).

20. Haff, G.G., Whitley, A., and Potteiger, J.A. “A Brief Review: Explosive Exercises and Sports Performance.” Strength & Conditioning Journal. 2001;23(3):13.

21. Wilson, G.J., Newton, R.U., Murphy, A.J., and Humphries, B.J. “The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic performance.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1993;25(11):1279-1286.

22. Suarez, D.G., Wagle, J.P., Cunanan, A.J., Sausaman, R.W., and Stone, M.H. “Dynamic Correspondence of Resistance Training to Sport: A Brief Review.” Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2019;41(4). Retrieved December 2, 2020.

23. Soriano, M.A., Jiménez-Reyes, P., Rhea, M.R., and Marín, P. J. “The Optimal Load for Maximal Power Production During Lower-Body Resistance Exercises: A Meta-Analysis.” Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 2015;45(8):1191-1205.

24. Weakley, J.J.S., Wilson, K.M., Till, K., et al. “Visual kinematic feedback enhances velocity, power, motivation and competitiveness in adolescent female athletes.” The Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning. 2019;27(3):16-22.

25. Weakley, J.J.S., Wilson, K.M., Till, K., et al. “Visual feedback attenuates mean concentric barbell velocity loss and improves motivation, competitiveness, and perceived workload in male adolescent athletes.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2019;33(9):2420-2425.

26. Weakley, J.J.S., Wilson, K.M., Till, K., et al. “Show me, tell me, encourage me: the effect of different forms of feedback on resistance training performance.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2020;34(11):3157-3163.

Making your athletes lightning fast through sprinting can be a game changer, with speed being a key difference-maker in reaching a ball first or overcoming an opponent. In professional football (soccer) approximately 42% of goals scored are preceded by a linear sprint.

High speed running is the combination of several elements:

• Stride length
• Cadence (stride frequency)
• Ground contact time
• Neuromuscular efficiency
• Whole body fluid coordination

Speed is as much a skill as a physical factor, and any athlete in a running-based sport can benefit from developing their ability to run fast—not only for performance, but also injury prevention. This can and should be part of a vertically integrated athletic development concept program for an aspiring athlete. Cristiano Ronaldo has enlisted the help of some of the world’s top sprinters (like Francis Obekwelu) in order to gain that extra 2%. England Rugby, meanwhile, has the services of elite coach Jonas Dodoo.

Speed is as much a skill as a physical factor, and any athlete in a running-based sport can benefit from developing their ability to run fast, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

In the USA, some of the top combine performers and players in the NFL were also track athletes during high school and college, with many of these athletes working with the likes of ALTIS, EXOS, MJ Performance (Michael Johnson’s brainchild), and private coaches such as Les Spellman throughout the year.

The argument could be made for genetic predisposition; however, we are talking about differences you can make between your athletes and others at the highest possible level. Anyone can develop speed and athletic capacity as a result.

The ability to accelerate helps an athlete beat an opponent, top speed development helps them beat everyone else, and a tolerance to such intense forms of training not only benefits an athlete’s health but also allows them to repeat such movements at a higher quality and speed even when fatigued—this is the speed reserve.

The following factors are key parts of athletic development and can also help with injury prevention and rehabilitation:

1. Movement pattern training
2. Year-round speed training
3. Bounciness and stiffness development
4. Tissue and overall physical capacity development
5. Heavy lifting with low volume
6. Resistance running and jumping
7. Active recovery

1. Develop the Driver as Well as the Race Car (Movement Patterns to Access Power)

Note here I say as well as the race car—this denotes I have no preference for one over the other. Yes, I want a nice fluid running action, but that is a long-term development goal just like max force production, rate of force development and power, switching speed, and so forth.

From both my own experience and from related research, each needs to be prioritized. There will be differences based on developmental stage, experience, and so on (which are not within the purview of this article).

Every contact I have with an athlete involves some element of “drilling.” Prior to track, my background is in martial arts and for hours on end we would practice moves and positions, eventually moving on to utilize them in semi- and full-contact sparring. The same concept holds true in my coaching: drilling is a great way to look at retention of information and build those neuroplastic and bioplastic pathways for repeatability.

Every contact I have with an athlete involves some element of *drilling*, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

This may come in the form of a short drill session and a few runs, or some simple plyometrics, or it could be a dedicated track or field-based session. Examples include:

• Acceleration—position, projection, timing
• Shorts—typically 5m, 10m, or 20m sprints
• Tempos—these aren’t slow, but they’re not quick—as they get better, we make it quicker
• Longs—over 60m, 80m, 120m with some longer sprints over 200m up to 300m (Note: I never go further than 60m for a non-sprinter, and even this depends on their event)

I give real-time and post-session technical feedback, but I also take a “less is more” approach to my coaching, allowing the athlete to absorb what has been said previously and then execute and self-order their body in an attempt to complete the change.

Some will argue “If an athlete is already quick, is there much point to doing anything technical with them?” To this, my answer always comes back to injury record and performance gains being incremental, the same way asymmetry isn’t an issue if the athlete is strong enough to handle the forces. In those cases I won’t mess with it, but if there’s a history of, say, hamstring injury or inconsistent performances, then this will be one of things I would look at.

2. Run Fast, Run Max—Develop Speed by Running at Speed, All Year Round

Anything else is conditioning.

This is fairly simple (or what Tony Holler calls Feed the Cats)—run fast! Like the SAID principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demand) discusses, in true strength training you need to be hitting that ideal load and rep range. To train running speed, you must get the athletes running fast to know what it’s like to run fast.

To train running speed, you must get the athletes running fast to know what it’s like to run fast, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

This can also be fun with a group: make it competitive, give one of them a staggered head start. I use timing gates where possible if it’s a one-on-one session, which gives the athlete something concrete and something to beat as a time.

This is the most important element parallel to developing technical efficiency—stimulating and challenging the athlete to become more efficient in attempting to execute the technical model you’ve discussed and agreed with them.

Remember, though, quality over quantity—we want cheetahs not plow horses, and as such they require vast amounts of rest and recovery between reps. People struggle with this concept during the session if they aren’t accustomed to it; however, they soon realize the fatigue-based effects associated with sprint training.

3. Develop Bounciness and Stiffness—Hit the Ground Hard and Use the Earth for Propulsion

This is where we look at developing more powerful hip extensors and a stiffer ankle/foot complex. How is this done?

• Plyometrics—pogos, hops, skips, bounds
• Loaded jumps and contrasts—dumbbell jumps, weighted vest jumps for height or distance
• Isometrics—heel raises, hip bridges, hip extension holds, hip flexor bridges, Nordic holds, foot intrinsic exercises
• Eccentrics—Nordic hamstring curls, hex bar single squat lowers, calf lowers off a step
• Rapid action movements—hamstring tantrums, medicine balls throws

Dosing:

Plyometrics—There are some well-established recommendations from governing bodies and research papers you can refer to regarding plyometric doses. However, one of the key caveats I consider when I work with any athlete is to allow the stimulus of plyometrics to take effect and let this dictate how much time is given between sessions. For example, foundation-level plyos, such as pogo bounces, can be done every 24 hours, but I give activities that involve higher forces acting upon the body, such as depth jumps, 48-72 hours between sessions.

Isometrics—I find these effective and easy to dose in most sessions, whether that is a static hold into plantar flexion for Achilles loading or a long lever hamstring bridge. Typically these would be for 10-30 seconds, however there are examples of variations by Alex Natara.

Eccentrics—There’s also a great amount of research that’s been done on eccentric training and its benefits for force production (Harden et al., 2018, Harden et al., 2019, Suchomel et al. 2019) as well as injury prevention for key muscles in sprinting like the hamstrings with exercises such as Nordic hamstring curls and variations.

4. Develop Tissue Capacity and Movement Range Resilience

Grow the glutes, strengthen the hamstrings, stiffen the Achilles, and improve the force transfer capability of the trunk and hip stabilizer muscles.

Ideally, developing this capability and then learning how to use it links to Number 1; sometimes slowing down progression as your athlete learns how to use new physical tools and integrate them into their new movement strategies is the best move.

I really get into sling training whether it be through a hold as described earlier, something ballistic like stick or prop running, or a reductionist drill moving through multiple planes of motion.

The body works in planes of movement, so although Nordics are great for the hamstrings, they don’t target the biceps femoris (hip drive orientated), which is the most injured and re-injured of the hamstrings in sprinting and running sports. So I often integrate the Askling divers and gliders as well as more dynamic actions.

5. Lift Heavy, Build Volume Tolerance Over Time

Published literature establishes that strength and power training are key components for athletic development; however, the difficulties and lack of specificity that can come from using Olympic lifts led me to seek other means.

Published literature establishes that strength and power training are key components for athletic development, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

Seeing poorly executed cleans with elbows down, wrists in full loaded extension, flexed spines, or sumo split positions led me to utilize the insight of Suchomel et al. regarding weightlifting derivatives. With this advice, we were able to progressively load way over 170% of an athlete’s one-repetition max clean.

For example, one of my athletes (who sits comfortably at 210kg for a mid-thigh pull using wrist straps) had a maximum clean of 110kg (with good technique). In order to increase his load, we began implementing derivatives.

Some examples of weightlifting derivatives include:

• Jump shrugs with hex/trap bar
• High pulls (from floor or mid-thigh)
• Push press
• Split jerk
• Rack half-squats

Given research discussing the development of glute max through hip thrusts, the combination and comparison of both thrusting and squatting/front squatting offers an interesting debate. I often use both in my programming. Although a recent paper by Jarvis et al. discusses the lack of carryover from hip thrusting to sprinting, it was only an eight-week program with collegiate athletes. Some athletes prefer hip thrusting and derivatives over attempting to overload on squatting and deadlifting that could lead to spinal injury.

Not to say those major lifts don’t have their place, but all my athletes have noted healthier periods after employing the trap/hex bar and weightlifting derivatives instead of doing single leg training like a Bulgarian split squat.

Options we use other than back squats and straight bar deadlifts:

• Hip thrusts and variations/derivatives—our athletes often hip thrust in excess of 250-300kg at 67-80kg bodyweight
• Back hypers
• Split squats
• Step ups
• Hex/trap bar deadlift—all athletes I work with now use this over the straight bar
• Single leg hex bar eccentrics

6. Use Resisted Runs—Pushing and Pulling

Resisted running allows athletes to train specific angles of acceleration if pushing a heavy sled (while I cue elements within that) and to run under duress at a percentage of their max velocity while under resistance.

I have used the method of determining the weight on the sled based on the athlete’s run time. To ensure the weight isn’t too heavy, I first time a specific distance and then stipulate they need to be able to run the same distance during a resisted run within no more than two seconds slower. So, if they complete a 30-meter sprint in 2.8 seconds, then they need to complete a resisted run of the same distance in no more than 2.8-4.8 seconds depending on the load.

Other methods would include resistance band runs (although there is a tax on the holder, and if the band is too heavy it can affect lumbopelvic position in the run).

The goals for these are projection if working on acceleration, stiffness through the foot and ankle, and syncing under duress (load on the sled). We tend to go heavier on pushing than we do on pulling, but some units allow for varied and controlled effects.

You can go expensive and purchase an Exer-Genie for £300-400 which can resist over 30m and 60m. However, simpler solutions can be sleds, plyo boxes for pushing in a gym, cars on a flat surface, and power bands (which are great in some respects for anchored in situ technical work or partner resisted runs).

Simple resisted running solutions can be sleds, plyo boxes for pushing in a gym, cars on a flat surface, and power bands, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

7. Recover Well, Less Is More, Quality Over Quantity

We need adaptation. That process doesn’t happen through hammering hundreds of reps with no rest. The brain and body need time to recover, to refine what’s useful and what isn’t. Recovery and adaptation are key for pathways to strengthen and boost excitability and for cells to process signals to develop new stronger, stiffer tissues.

In the world of social media, where athletes see each other train, they find it hard to “actively recover.” I call this active recovery or down-regulation rather than rest because it then requires the athletes to take action in optimizing their recovery and response to training rather than passively hoping that they’ll feel better.

Sleep is by far the best recovery tool any athlete can use; nutrition and hydration are tied for second. Another thing I do is speak to athletes—if the athletes look or feel run down and can’t get going, I change the session (obviously, if I think they’re trying to pull a fast one me then I sniff that out before it gets going). Or, I cancel it completely. I often have a plan A, B, C, and sometimes D. Hitting reset the next day is far better than pressing on and risking a poor performance or injury.

Sleep is by far the best recovery tool any athlete can use, says @Mike_SNC_Rehab. Share on X

This is difficult, as sometimes a great training session can be exactly what the doctor ordered for the athlete’s mental health, but again this requires you understanding your athlete’s response to training. Yes, ACWR load monitoring is great, as is using force plates; however, none of these are superior to looking at them and asking them how they’re doing.

Of course there are tools—some of my athletes use vibrating foam rollers and massage guns, sleep tanks, and recovery garments—but none are superior to a good night’s sleep, an afternoon nap, some sunshine, or some quiet. Downtime from other stimuli and stress is also key—I recommend mindfulness or quiet time like reading, drawing, or meditation in such a frantic world. There are apps for this, but it isn’t a new concept and there are many ways to enlist this on any budget.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Harden, M., Wolf, A., Russell, M., Hicks, K.M., French, D., and Howatson, G. “An evaluation of supramaximally loaded eccentric leg press exercise.” J Strength Cond Res. 2018;32(10):2708-2714.

2. Harden, M., Wolf, A., Haff, G.G., Hicks, K.M., and Howatson, G. “Repeatability and specificity of eccentric force output and the implications for eccentric training load prescription.” J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33(3):676-683.

3. Suchomel, T.J., Wagle, J.P., Douglas, J., et al. “Implementing eccentric resistance training—Part 1: A brief review of existing methods.” J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(2):38.

4. Suchomel, T.J., Wagle, J.P., Douglas, J., et al. “Implementing eccentric resistance training—Part 2: Practical recommendations.” J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(3):55.

5. Van Hooren, B. and Bosch, F. “Preventing hamstring injuries – Part 2: There is possibly an isometric action of the hamstrings in high-speed running and it does matter.” Sport Perform Sci Reports. 2018;25(1):1-5.

6. Jarvis, P., Cassone, N., Turner, A., Chavda, S., Edwards, M., and Bishop, C. “Heavy Barbell Hip Thrusts Do Not Effect Sprint Performance: An 8-Week Randomized Controlled Study.” J Strength Cond Res. 2019;33:S78-S84.

7. Buchheit, M., Samozino, P., Glynn, J.A., Michael, B.S., Al Haddad, H., Mendez-Villanueva, A. and Morin, J.B., 2014. Mechanical determinants of acceleration and maximal sprinting speed in highly trained young soccer players. Journal of sports sciences, 32(20), pp.1906-1913.

8. Chmielewski, T.L., Myer, G.D., Kauffman, D. and Tillman, S.M., 2006. Plyometric exercise in the rehabilitation of athletes: physiological responses and clinical application. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 36(5), pp.308-319.

9. Contreras, B., Vigotsky, A.D., Schoenfeld, B.J., Beardsley, C., McMaster, D.T., Reyneke, J.H. and Cronin, J.B., 2017. Effects of a six-week hip thrust vs. front squat resistance training program on performance in adolescent males: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 31(4), pp.999-1008.

10. Cronin, J.B. and Hansen, K.T., 2005. Strength and power predictors of sports speed. J Strength Cond Res, 19(2), pp.349-357.

11. Cross, M.R., Brughelli, M., Samozino, P., Brown, S.R. and Morin, J.B., 2017. Optimal loading for maximizing power during sled-resisted sprinting. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 12(8), pp.1069-1077.

12. Cuthbert, M., Ripley, N., McMahon, J.J., Evans, M., Haff, G.G. and Comfort, P., 2020. Reply to:“Comment on: The Effect of Nordic Hamstring Exercise Intervention Volume on Eccentric Strength and Muscle Architecture Adaptations: A Systematic Review and Meta-analyses”. Sports Medicine, 50(1), pp.223-225.

13. Deweese, B.H., Bellon, C., Magrum, E., Taber, C.B. and Suchomel, T.J., 2016. Strengthening the springs: improving sprint performance via strength training.

14. Haff, G.G. and Nimphius, S., 2012. Training principles for power. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 34(6), pp.2-12.

15. Jeffreys, I. ed., 2013. Developing speed. Human Kinetics.

16. McGill, S., 2010. Core training: Evidence translating to better performance and injury prevention. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 32(3), pp.33-46.

17. Moreside, J.M. and McGill, S.M., 2013. Improvements in hip flexibility do not transfer to mobility in functional movement patterns. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(10), pp.2635-2643.

18. Santana, J.C., McGill, S.M. and Brown, L.E., 2015. Anterior and posterior serape: The rotational core. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 37(5), pp.8-13.

19. Suchomel, T.J., Nimphius, S. and Stone, M.H., 2016. The importance of muscular strength in athletic performance. Sports medicine, 46(10), pp.1419-1449.

20. Suchomel, T.J., Comfort, P. and Stone, M.H., 2015. Weightlifting pulling derivatives: Rationale for implementation and application. Sports Medicine, 45(6), pp.823-839.

21. Suchomel, T.J., Comfort, P. and Lake, J.P., 2017. Enhancing the force-velocity profile of athletes using weightlifting derivatives. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 39(1), pp.10-20.

22. Van Hooren, B. and Bosch, F., 2017. Is there really an eccentric action of the hamstrings during the swing phase of high-speed running? Part I: a critical review of the literature. Journal of sports sciences, 35(23), pp.2313-2321.

23. Van Hooren, B. and Bosch, F., 2017. Is there really an eccentric action of the hamstrings during the swing phase of high-speed running? Part II: Implications for exercise. Journal of sports sciences, 35(23), pp.2322-2333.

When you think of strength training, the first thing that comes to mind is typically a loaded barbell, or perhaps some dumbbells or even kettlebells. This is a standard first thought and what I would consider first as well, since these are the most common tools used to develop strength. Though often undervalued (or completely disregarded), strength training through manual resistance is another means that is effective if done properly.

There is good reasoning behind using standard tools such as barbells and dumbbells, as those are extremely effective at developing strength and have stood the test of time. These implements make it easy to progress and measure improvement: If you increase 5 pounds over a month or increase in repetitions, then you know you have improved your strength and bettered yourself, to a relative degree.

While manual resistance exercises may not be as common or won’t ever replace the barbell, this method can serve as an additional training option. Some of the positives of using manual resistance are:

• Resistance can be adjusted immediately; your partner just needs to alter the tension. This makes it a great option, especially for youth athletes or those with a low training age.
• Many of the exercises using manual resistance require no additional equipment other than a training partner and can be performed anywhere. This works especially well within the team setting on the field before or after practice sessions.
• Several exercises performed with manual resistance are used to develop and strengthen the areas of the hips and ankles, which are often neglected when using traditional strength training tools.

You can use several exercises with manual resistance to develop and strengthen the areas of the hips and ankles, which traditional strength training tools often neglect. Share on X

Manual resistance works effectively with isometric exercises targeting the hips and ankles, but it can also be used to provide resistance with more common exercises, such as push-ups and reverse hypers. I primarily work with youth athletes in the private sector and have seen great success utilizing manual resistance within their sessions. It creates a fun training environment and is appropriate for their age and training level.

Educating Your Athletes

The main concern with using manual resistance comes down to the maturity and understanding of the individual applying the resistance. In a team setting, since the athletes themselves are the resistance, it is important to educate them and get them to properly apply the appropriate resistance in a safe and progressive manner.

As you know, getting athletes to follow directions can be difficult, yet not impossible. When introducing manual resistance, it is best to teach the group as a whole and go through full sets demonstrating on a coach at first—perhaps choosing something simple such as an isometric hold, since this will be on the coach’s time. Another option I like to do is use a stronger athlete as an example and make a point with them. If they feel the challenge when performing the exercise, then it sets an emphatic tone for the rest of the group.

Education is key, because if too much or too little resistance is applied, then it defeats the purpose of the exercise. If possible, coaches should be applying resistance to their athletes, but I understand this is not always possible.

Many of the same training principles that you would use with a standard barbell movement apply to manual resistance exercises. They can be performed for a set number of repetitions or as isometric holds. If the intensity of the manual resistance increases, then the quality of repetition may have an inverse effect. It’s important for your training partners to be able to gauge this and make adjustments.

Many of the same training principles used with standard barbell movements apply to manual resistance exercises, which can be performed for a set number of reps or as isometric holds. Share on X

Performing through the full range of movement is a positive in and of itself, and you can load a specific portion of the action such as the eccentric phase, concentric phase, or both. Utilizing the isometric hold is also beneficial since you can pick a specific joint position to strengthen.

Shown below are exercises performed in both manners. Regardless of which way they are performed, I would recommend focusing on a high quality of movement—so, isometric holds not exceeding 20 seconds and repetitions staying in a moderate range (unless resistance is altered to fit the change). Ultimately, it comes down to you and what you find to be most appropriate for your athletes, but moderate is a good starting point.

Manual Resisted Four-Way Hip Series (Flexion, Extension, Abduction, Adduction)

Training the hips directly is one of those things we know we should do, but how to do so isn’t as clear. There are several different methods of accomplishing this with bands, cable attachments, or fancy and expensive hip machines. Using a partner to create the resistance, however, is a simple and more effective method for most.

Video 1. When performing the isometric four-way hip series, it is important to create maximal tension and intent. When you place your hand on their foot or shin for the isometric, you’re not trying to drive their leg down but rather create an immovable pad for them to drive their leg into.

In the hip series, work to prevent any additional compensations from occurring during the holds. Typically, when you tell an athlete to drive into your hand as hard as possible, they will do so any way available to accomplish the task. The only body part that should be moving is the one being asked to perform the movement.

Video 2. When performing the series for repetitions, it is important to maintain the resistance to be consistent throughout the full range and for both athletes to demonstrate control. You don’t want any reckless, quick movements when performing any reps.

A cue for utilizing manual resistance during full range of motion exercises is to provide little (or just enough) resistance for them to achieve the concentric portion and then near-maximal tension on the eccentric portion. Athletes performing the exercise should almost fight you on the eccentric portion. Many individuals will do this subconsciously, because if they didn’t, then when performing the hip flexion, for example, their leg would slam into the ground every rep.

Using manual resistance can apply tension through planes of movement that are usually not possible. Share on X

The feet and ankles are similar to the hips, as we understand the importance of this complex but are limited typically within the weight room.

Using manual resistance can apply tension through planes of movement that are usually not possible.

Manual Resisted Ankle Series (Dorsiflexion, Inversion, Eversion)

When performing the exercise, you want to apply just enough tension to make the dorsiflexion difficult, but achievable, through pushing down on the front half of the foot. Typically, this doesn’t require much resistance, as it’s your entire body pushing down on an athlete’s feet. When returning to the ground though, have your athletes fight, trying to prevent you from pushing their feet back to the ground.

Video 3. Since we are stronger in the eccentric and isometric phases, athletes will be much stronger in this position, and it will help them feel the strain through their shins and feet.

Video 4. To begin this exercise, the athlete can sit on a bench and elevate their foot with a pad or a foam roller. If you are limited on the equipment, you can easily have them sit on the ground and cross their opposite foot under their leg (creating a figure 4) to elevate their foot.

From the starting position, you will then place your hand on one side of their foot, applying slight tension. Instruct them to drive their foot into your hand until the foot is in its full range of motion. To finish, you will forcefully drive their foot back into the starting position.

Manual Resisted Push-Up Series

Upper body movement patterns are easier to train in the weight room. Exercises such as chin-ups and bench press are staples of many training programs, and while there is nothing broken with the push-up, using manual resistance can be beneficial for a field-based session or use the isometric hold for a potentiation effect.

Video 5. The athletes want to start this a quarter of the way off the ground. This will allow them to be in a stronger position and able to push more forcefully away from the ground.

When applying tension, place one hand on the upper back and the opposite hand on the lower back. You want to ensure that the tension is evenly distributed during the hold.

Video 6. When performing for reps, the tension is applied the same way so that the resistance is appropriate.

Cueing your athletes to push away from the ground works better as opposed to pushing up. This creates more trunk engagement and intent through the exercise.

Manual Resisted Reverse-Hyper Series

I know I previously stated that one of the benefits of using manual resistance as a training tool was that it requires no training equipment. If you are fortunate enough and have access to a reverse hyper machine or an adjustable incline bench in your weight room, then you have a wide array of manually resisted, reverse hyper movements that you can perform with your athletes.

The reverse hyper is great for posterior strength development, but sometimes weight isn’t appropriate for individuals. Using manual resistance can serve both sides, as they can train the movement but within a more appropriate structure.

Using a partner to apply the resistance also allows you to train several different muscle actions at once, as you can also add hip abduction, hip adduction, and trunk isometric strength through the various movements listed below.

Double-Leg Hold

Video 7. The double leg hold is a great introductory exercise for the reverse hyper series. The athlete applying the tension isn’t pushing the feet down, but rather creating an object for them to drive their feet against.

Make sure that the athletes performing the above exercise keep their big toes pulled up to their shoes and their feet pressed together tightly. Another major point I stress with the athletes is the importance of breathing and controlling it, especially during longer isometric holds for 20-30 seconds.

Video 8. When performing the repetitions for the reverse hyper, maintain the tension being applied throughout the full range of the exercise and perform each rep at a constant speed in a controlled manner. I tell my athletes it’s similar to cranking up a jack or pumping water out of a well.

Single Leg Hold

Video 9. The single leg isometric is performed in the same fashion as the double leg movement.

With the single leg variation, the opposite leg can be raised or relaxed down, depending on the athlete’s preference, isolating just a single leg. 

Video 10. Less is more when applying the resistance on the single leg repetitions. You don’t want any unnecessary rotation or movement whatsoever during each rep.

Abduction Isometric Hold

Video 11. Adding hip abduction and adduction to the reverse hyper holds is a progression to challenge your athletes.

When applying the abduction, your training partner will place their hands on the outside of the athlete’s feet, forcefully driving their feet inward and trying to make them touch. This simultaneously forces the partner to drive their feet up as well.

Adduction Isometric Hold 

Video 12. To perform the isometric with the adduction hold, the training partner will create a fist with their hand and place it in between their counterpart’s feet, forcing the athlete to drive their feet inward, trying to crush the fist. The second hand will be over the heels of the feet, so the partner will continue to drive up into the isometric hold.

Trunk Lateral Flexion Isometric Hold

Video 13. This movement is for your more-advanced athletes and should not be rushed.

When adding the lateral pull to the reverse hyper isometric, you will lightly grab the athlete’s feet and either push or pull in one direction. If, for example, you are pulling their feet toward you or off of their right side, then they will have to isometrically contract their left side to prevent unnecessary lateral flexion.

Bench Options

If you do not have access to a reverse hyper machine, please do not let that stop you from performing these exercises—a more affordable alternative is a simple adjustable incline bench with maybe a pad for comfort.

Video 14. You can perform any of the previously mentioned variations with the bench setup if you do not have a reverse hyper machine available.

Start by setting up the incline bench around a 45-degree angle. Then the athlete will set their hips on the edge of the bench or pad and place their forearms flat on the bench, holding onto the bench tightly and collapsing their body down on the angle of the bench, while raising their lower body.

Manual Resisted Lower Body Series (Leg Curls, Lateral Step, Leg Extensions)

Video 15. Have the athlete lay flat on a bench or the ground with a pad underneath their knees. Ensure that the athlete keeps their toes flexed up toward the shin and maintains their feet pressed together.

When applying resistance in the above movement, do so by driving your hands into their heels. Maintain consistent, steady tension throughout each rep.

While the knee extension can also be performed on a bench, it is best to perform on a high enough spot, such as the reverse hyper machine, to allow for the full range of the leg to come back down. This setup may be a little tougher, but still, it’s a great alternative if you do not have access to a leg extension machine.

Video 16. Once you find the appropriate spot to perform the knee extension, you will start by placing your hand over the athlete’s shins to apply resistance. Have the athlete keep their big toes up as they drive their feet up until the leg is fully extended.

Developing lateral strength and speed is a must for a majority of field-based sports. Using a partner to apply tension on the lateral step forces them to drive with the knee and maintain a proper body position for this particular movement.

When applying pressure, work to apply it evenly through the shoulder and hip. I have also used tackle pads to drive into athletes to ensure a more even distribution of resistance.

Video 17. Apply the resistance evenly by placing one hand on the athlete’s shoulder and the other hand on the hip. When the athlete steps, they should lead with their knee and have the rest of their body follow, maintaining their base position.

Getting Results from Manual Resistance

When I first began implementing manual resistance in exercise, I was unsure of the results or if I would even be able to get my athletes to buy into the exercises. While using manual resistance may be different, it is by no means easy. Over time, I have found great success with these movements in my programming and improved results with the athletes I train.

Even those athletes with a higher training age and considered to be more ‘elite’ can see a great benefit from manual resistance exercises, especially for training the ankles and hips. Share on X

I primarily work with youth athletes—although I also train collegiate athletes competing in various sports, such as basketball, football, and track. Even those athletes with a higher training age and considered to be more “elite” can see a great benefit from manual resistance exercises, especially in terms of training the ankles and hips. They also tell me how they enjoy performing the exercises with their teammates, as it is something different from the normal 3×10 barbell back squat.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Every few months, it seems there’s an innovative recovery, mobility, or power product that hits the market. Like many of you, I’m among the chorus of people asking essential questions. Does it work? Is it useful for me? Is it worth the investment? As a coach for professional athletes and Fortune 500 executives who depend on their body to perform (and then recover), I want to know the answer to these questions so I can best support their efforts.

In lieu of research—which, let’s be honest, will probably take decades before it’s conclusive—I first take steps to test new technologies and products on myself. Using metrics on my wearable device (in particular HRV, which I’ve discussed in a previous SimpliFaster article), I can test my recovery, or sleep, or a number of other factors. I’m still “wearable agnostic” and have tested out nearly all of them. For this experiment, I used both an Oura Ring and a Whoop Band and saw nearly identical scores.

While these self-experiments don’t replace double-blind peer-reviewed studies, I do my best to isolate variables and abide by the scientific process…at least as much as possible in the real world, outside of a laboratory.

With that prelude out of the way, I’ll get into discussing my first experiment today: the Normatec Pulse 2.0 from Hyperice, for which I used the Leg Recovery System.

The Normatec looks like the type of futuristic recovery tool that performance coaches have been drooling about for decades. There’s no doubt it has the “cool” factor, which draws in many people—and, quite frankly, is a huge contributor to the amount of attention a new piece of technology will get.

Attention and intrigue, though, are nothing but speculation—and I wanted to put the Normatec to the test.

The basic concept behind the Normatec is to add compression and therefore increase blood flow and circulation, which ultimately will enhance recovery. Share on X

For those unfamiliar, the basic concept behind the Normatec is to add compression and therefore increase blood flow and circulation, which ultimately will enhance recovery. That’s a bit of an oversimplification, but as far as my clients are concerned (and likely yours, as well), that’s sufficient. Also, I’m not as interested in how it works as I am in that it works. To understand more concepts and theories behind pneumatic compression, as well as more details on all the features of the Normatec, check out this guide to pneumatic compression recovery systems.

I settled on a six-week experiment, because that time frame lined up well with what would be a very consistent schedule for me. Since the Normatec is a general recovery tool, I used the HRV metric on my wearable device to assess how it was helping my recovery generally, rather than using soreness measurements—these would have been more challenging to measure, or track, and more likely than not would’ve just left me frustrated, and I would’ve abandoned the experiment. Again, I’ve covered why I like HRV so much here, so I won’t get into it again too much.

My Schedule

Like any experiment, controlling variables is key. My weekdays over these six weeks looked virtually the same. I woke up at 7:20 a.m. In the morning, I had a workout with our group coaching clients, followed by my own strength training. In the evening, I played men’s league pick-up hockey.

We played 60 minutes running time with seven players in each team. I averaged 39 minutes total time on ice, which is higher than any NHL player. But as any men’s league player knows, my shifts weren’t as intense as the pro game, making it a good mix of intense anaerobic and aerobic activity. By 10 p.m., I had eaten and was ready to use the Normatec.

For those unfamiliar with the Normatec, you can learn more about it here. I used the set that includes legs and boots. You pull them on like bulky pants, and for the sake of this experiment, I chose to use them while lying down. I found this to be the most comfortable and also the most practical. The sensation feels like a less-intense blood pressure cuff, except it flows back up toward the heart.

For the first two weeks and the last two weeks, I used the Normatec for 20 minutes at 10 p.m. at level four (out of seven) after playing hockey and as my last activity before bed. During the middle two weeks, I did NOT use the Normatec.

My sleeping HRV (the HRV score collected from a wearable while you sleep, and which I use as my overall indicator of recovery) normally averages 96.

My HRV Scores with and Without the Normatec

Each of these reflect the average collected over the weekday.

• Week 1: 129
• Week 2: 124
• Week 3: 96
• Week 4: 88
• Week 5: 113
• Week 6: 108

Clearly, the Normatec supported my overall recovery. Weeks three and four line up around my average HRV, while for the other weeks my recovery was better than normal. There is a downward trend over the six weeks; although I don’t have an exact explanation, my theory is that because I was trying hard to stick to the same routine week after week (including always skating at night before using the Normatec), I didn’t give myself the deload that I normally would have.

The Passive Activity Aspect

One factor I like about the Normatec is the same reason I like listening to podcasts and audiobooks: it’s a semi-passive activity. I could do other things while using the Normatec. Sure, I obviously couldn’t walk around, but I could read a book or even use my computer. (Although I didn’t use any screens because it was close to bedtime—which is a variable that would’ve messed with the experiment.) You could also do further activities that enhance your recovery, like meditate or even stretch. (I did some upper body band stretches with the legs on.)

I could do other things while using the Normatec that enhanced recovery, like meditation… This is in contrast to other recovery methods that demand all of your energy and attention. Share on X

These bonus recovery methods were my go-to. I meditated, did deep breathing exercises, and engaged in other before-bed recovery protocols while using the Normatec. These other methods are extra variables that could explain the extreme increase in HRV.

This is in contrast to other recovery methods that demand all of your energy and attention—for example, you can’t use a float tank and do anything else. In terms of practicality for clients who thrive on an ability to multitask, I like this aspect a lot.

Traveling: Pros and Cons

You can travel with the Normatec in a carry-on bag. I flew with it one weekend and had no issue getting through TSA. For athletes and executives with crazy flying schedules who need the recovery boost, I Iike that accessibility.

The downside is it’s kind of a pain to fold up and fit into the bag. You know when you go camping and the tent is really easy to take out but difficult to put back in because you have to fold it perfectly? The Normatec is a lot like that. That said, it’s still a travel-friendly recovery option, and there’s a lot to be said for that. You can charge it by plugging it into the wall, but while traveling I didn’t have to charge it because it’s good for about eight hours of use.

Shifting into a Parasympathetic State

The amount I slept, and my sleep and wake times, stayed the same each night, whether I used the Normatec or not. Yet, my recovery and sleep quality improved after using the Normatec for 20 minutes the night before. Whether the compression itself improved sleep quality is hard to quantify, because I combined the Normatec with 20 minutes of breathwork and used it while laying down, both of which helped me shift into a parasympathetic state.

As I mentioned, this is great because the Normatec is a semi-passive activity, and it created the structure to implement 20 minutes of downtime and move into a parasympathetic state. As you know, our sleep quality improves the more we can shift into a parasympathetic state prior to bed. I believe the Normatec was effective at creating the environment for me to do that.

Our sleep quality improves the more we can shift into a parasympathetic state prior to bed. I believe the Normatec was effective at creating the environment for me to do that. Share on X

A Tool Worth Investing in

Personally, I will use the Normatec on a regular basis and travel with it even when I don’t check bags. I recommend it to my clients who frequently travel, especially if they change time zones. In general, I like how accessible it is, and I think it’s great for any competitors and those who need to prioritize recovery. The only roadblock is the cost, but that’s a decision for you to make.

If you own a gym, this is an easy tool to add to a suite of recovery tools for your clients, where they can just come in and use it. One unit for a whole gym becomes a lot less of a pricy investment. This was an overview of my impressions, and I do think this type and class of recovery tools has a lot of potential benefit in the right settings both now and in the future as the technology continues to improve.