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All athletes want to achieve peak performance at the right time, which requires a careful balance of training, nutrition, recovery, and rest. For many reasons, what works as the best training program for one runner may be the opposite for someone else. Oxidative stress is one of these reasons.

Oxidative stress is unavoidable in daily life, but professional athletes must contend with exposure from the very things they do the most—train and compete. Reasonable levels of oxidative stress can enhance sprint performance. However, it’s a slippery slope: too much, and you’ll find your performance and energy levels dropping.

Oxidative stress can be damaging, but it also signals the body to adapt, get fitter, and boost its intrinsic antioxidant defenses. The fitter an athlete becomes, the more adept their body’s antioxidant response gets. Share on X

Without adequate intervention, oxidative stress can impact sprint performance and beyond. It can also affect an athlete’s health and longevity.

What Is Oxidative Stress?

Oxidative stress is an imbalance of antioxidants and free radicals in the body—specifically, more free radicals than antioxidants. Antioxidants are compounds that neutralize free radicals in the body. They reduce the effects of oxidative stress.

Cells continuously produce free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as part of metabolic processes. ROS production during physical activity significantly impacts sports performance. During exercise, the metabolism speeds up to meet the body’s increased need for oxygen, which triggers the release of ROS. Physical activity also triggers enzyme activation, which increases the number of ROS. Over time, this process can harm cells and contribute to muscle damage and fatigue. While oxidative stress can positively impact performance in moderation, it’s also linked to many diseases, including diabetes, Parkinson’s, cancer, and heart disease.

However, physical activity can also increase antioxidants, making the big picture significantly more complex. Oxidative stress can be damaging, but it also signals the body to adapt, get fitter, and boost its intrinsic antioxidant defenses. The fitter an athlete becomes, the more adept their body’s antioxidant response gets. Since antioxidants combat free radicals in the body, many athletes take supplements to prevent oxidative stress. However, too much blocks some of the natural training gains associated with it. The trick is to find the right balance.

What Causes Oxidative Stress?

The presence of ROS increases due to physical and environmental stressors. Exercise is one of these stressors, as is any situation where oxygen consumption is increased. Professional athletes train and perform at levels where maximum oxygen is required, so ROS production is that much higher.

Without adequate intervention, oxidative stress can impact sprint performance and beyond. It can also affect an athlete's health and longevity, says Jack Shaw. Share on X

In addition to exercise, oxidative stress can also be caused by pollution, sun exposure, and stress. Any of these triggers can be present in the athlete’s environment. You may not be aware that you’re experiencing oxidative stress, as no standout symptoms exist until the condition is relatively advanced.

Weighing the Benefits of Oxidative Stress for Athletes

Although oxidative stress must be carefully managed, athletes can benefit from the levels of oxidative stress associated with low to moderate levels of exercise. This means keeping your heart rate at about 65% to 85% of your max heart rate. Low to moderate levels of exercise can stimulate adaptive responses in the body, improving resilience and performance without damaging tissue and organs.

Oxidative stress can also activate signaling pathways that promote hypertrophy and strength gains. This additional power is crucial in a world where force applied to the ground is a key differentiator between elite and sub-elite sprinters. Moderate oxidative stress can also stimulate the production of new mitochondria in a process called mitochondrial biogenesis,  enhancing aerobic capacity and endurance performance.

Image 1. Source: “Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Function and Adaptation to Exercise: New Perspectives in Nutrition.” Creative Commons License here.

ROS can promote vasodilation, or a widening of the blood vessels, which increases blood flow to muscles during exercise. The better the blood circulates, the more effective the body’s nutrient and waste removal systems work. Acute oxidative stress also initiates an inflammatory response when chronic inflammation reaches harmful levels—essential for muscle repair and adaptation during exercise.

The presence of oxidative stress signals the body to adapt to the demands of training, which can improve metabolic efficiency and overall athletic performance.

Understanding the Drawbacks of Oxidative Stress

Despite these benefits, oxidative stress can be an unwieldy force. High levels of ROS can cause oxidative damage to muscle fibers during training. This damage is a significant factor in the development of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which can impair muscle function in the short term. While the inflammatory responses that oxidative stress triggers are necessary for muscle repair, they can also lead to prolonged soreness and recovery time, which is challenging for athletes in intense training.

Understanding the balance between harmful and beneficial effects of oxidative stress can help athletes and coaches optimize training strategies for better performance and recovery. Share on X

Oxidative stress is also associated with a quicker onset of fatigue during exercise. ROS can impair energy production processes in muscle cells, and excessive amounts can decrease performance. Chronic oxidative stress can lead to overtraining syndrome, which means you’ll take longer to recover from workouts and experience prolonged fatigue.

Other issues with oxidative stress are weakened muscle and connective tissues, which increase the likelihood of injuries. There is also evidence that oxidative stress can affect cognitive function, which can impact decision-making during competition.

Understanding the balance between harmful and beneficial effects of oxidative stress can help athletes and coaches optimize training strategies for better performance and recovery.

How Oxidative Stress Affects a Runner’s Short- and Long-Term Performance

Excess oxidative stress can begin impacting sprinting performance relatively early. Many believe that the most intensive training on the track is anything that results in high levels of lactic acid. Oxidative stress exacerbates the inflammation associated with intensive training. High levels of ROS can also increase the perception of fatigue, potentially making the effects of lactic acid more pronounced.

Every athlete is different—some may experience more overt symptoms, particularly fatigue and slow recovery, than others in the short term. In the long term, the effects become more apparent. If performance is decreasing and injuries are becoming more prevalent, explore solutions to this issue before it has lasting consequences.

Chronic oxidative stress can weaken the immune system, making you more prone to illness and infection. Over time, these issues significantly impact performance and training. It also contributes to accelerated cellular aging and increases the risk of chronic diseases. When dealing with the effects of oxidative stress, you must think beyond your prime and look to long-term performance and longevity.

How to Manage Oxidative Stress

Like many challenges facing athletes today, a holistic approach is the best way to balance health and long-term performance. Antioxidants are the most effective way to reduce oxidative stress, and those from natural sources are the most healthful, in part because the doses are low. Look to eat at least five servings a day of colorful fruits and vegetables rich in antioxidants. Aim to eat fish twice a week to get omega-3 fatty acids, which are also integral to reducing oxidative stress.

The timing of nutrient intake can also help in managing excessive oxidative stress. For example, consuming antioxidants and carbohydrates immediately after intense training can help replenish glycogen stores and combat oxidative damage.

Image 2. Data Source: “Antioxidants and Sports Performance”

Prioritize recovery techniques like sleep hygiene and stress management. Mindfulness, meditation, and deep breathing exercises can all lower stress levels. Regular massage and foam rolling before and after training are non-negotiable parts of recovery. Limit your exposure to environmental pollutants and protect your skin from excessive sun exposure during training.

Regular blood tests for oxidative stress biomarkers can also be useful for effectively tailoring nutrition and training programs. Alongside performance metrics, assessments can provide valuable insight into athlete physical performance and recovery. Assessments can include more than physical performance tests. They should also consider subjective measures like mood, fatigue levels, and overall well-being.

Cross-training has increased performance and reduced the repetitive stress on the primary muscle groups used for sprinting, says Jack Shaw. Share on X

Since oxidative stress presents differently from athlete-to-athlete, sprinters must monitor their responses to training and adjust accordingly. They must pay attention to signs of fatigue, prolonged soreness and decreased performance. They should then manage training intensity and recovery protocols around these symptoms.

Developing Training to Manage Oxidative Stress

Significant gaps still exist between science and best practice in how training methods should be applied for elite sprint performance. Excess oxidative stress further complicates matters, highlighting the value of tailored training programs compiled by experienced professionals.

Balance volume and intensity to allow for adequate recovery. You can do this by including interval training or tempo runs to push anaerobic thresholds while allowing for recovery. Incorporate easy runs, cross-training, and recovery to promote aerobic conditioning without excess oxidative stress.

Aim to train at a lower-to-moderate intensity 80% of the time, with 20% dedicated to more intense exercise. During intense workouts, your heart rate should be about 80% to 90% of your maximum, and you shouldn’t overexert yourself to exhaustion or nausea.

Active recovery days are also essential to promote blood flow and help clear metabolic waste products. Recovery days can include cold water immersion for 10-20 minutes between 50 and 59 F, which reduces inflammation and muscle soreness.

Cross-training has increased performance and reduced the repetitive stress on the primary muscle groups used for sprinting. Functional strength training is an excellent option to include for preventing injury and improving overall stability. Collaborating with sports nutritionists, psychologists, and expert trainers can give athletes a comprehensive approach to managing oxidative stress. Integrating multiple areas of expertise is crucial to developing a holistic strategy that addresses oxidative stress from different angles.

Creating a training program that manages oxidative stress is a holistic approach. It’s a balancing act between training, recovery, nutrition, and mental well-being. Athletes who find the sweet spot can optimize their performance while minimizing excessive oxidative stress.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Despite all the advances in strength coaching, sports medicine, and equipment technology, about one million individuals each year still suffer an Achilles tendon injury. These injuries are devastating for athletes—even with the best care, many athletes with torn Achilles tendons never return to their pre-injury performance levels.

At the pro level, an Achilles rupture is often career-ending. For these reasons, a proactive approach is needed, especially in sports such as soccer, football, basketball, and distance running, where the incidence of Achilles tears is highest. My approach involves a five-step, progressive exercise model, followed by a few “Achilles Hygiene” suggestions for keeping this tendon strong, flexible, and healthy.

(Lead photo by Ryan Paiva, LiftingLife.com)

The Fragile Achilles—Not!

Anatomy textbooks often give the impression that tendons are rigid, cable-like structures that connect bones to muscles. Not quite, as tendons can stretch up to eight percent of their resting length. They are also active tissues that act as biological springs that can stretch, store energy, and recoil to produce or amplify force. Let’s look at a few rather extreme examples of the resilience of the Achilles.

Note the positions of the ankles of the two weightlifters in Image 1 below. Not only are their Achilles stretched to extreme lengths, but they are under high loads. How extreme? How much load?

If preventing Achilles injuries is a priority, athletes should train the Achilles to react to rapid, large-amplitude movements under load..., says Kim Goss. Share on X

Consider that six male lifters have clean and jerked more than triple bodyweight, and the current absolute world record is 588 pounds. On the women’s side, a 108-pound woman clean and jerked 273 (over 2 ½ times bodyweight), and the heaviest clean and jerk by a woman is 425, performed at the 2016 Summer Olympics. Data on the strength levels of NFL players is scarce, but I assume that few NFL players can clean 425 pounds.

Besides enabling them to lift heavier loads (by allowing them to catch the barbell at lower heights), the lifter’s large-amplitude/high-load training protects against Achilles injuries. Let’s look at three examples of how using the proper training stimulus can help when things go wrong.

In Image 2, a female weightlifter awkwardly misses a jerk with 279 pounds, which represents 169 percent of her bodyweight. Her front ankle collapses outward, and the Achilles of her back leg is under extreme stretch when her leg plants and again when her left knee buckles. You would think these positions with such heavy weights would seriously injure this athlete, but she walked away just fine and returned to the platform for her next attempt and successfully lifted 293! Such great escapes are common in weightlifting—let’s look at two more.

In Image 3, two weightlifters awkwardly collapse under cleans, the lightweight female with 257 pounds and the male with 478, weights exceeding double their bodyweights. Their Achilles were under extreme stress in both misses, yet neither athlete was injured.

What can we learn from these three lifters? One answer is that if preventing Achilles injuries is a priority, athletes should train the Achilles to react to rapid, large-amplitude movements under load. However, for poorly conditioned athletes, such stimulus takes an introductory period of preparation, which includes avoiding specific high-stress conditioning methods. Consider the warning of Posturologist Paul Gagné, a strength coach who has trained over 500 NHL players, and his experience with push sleds and hockey players.

“Because pushing sleds places the Achilles under load throughout an extreme range of motion, I’ve seen many hockey players have problems with their Achilles, particularly the first time they try them,” says Gagné.

Likewise, I’m a proponent of the Olympic lifts for preventing Achilles injuries, and I make the case in a previous article as Achilles injuries are virtually non-existent in that sport. However, having athletes attempt full snatches or cleans during their first workout, particularly with maximal weights, may not end well. With that background, let’s look at an exercise program that can help you, or the athletes you coach, avoid Achilles injuries.

Step-by-Step Achilles Training

This program begins with exercises to develop stability, proprioception, and flexibility. It progresses into large amplitude, dynamic movements. I did not invent any of these exercises, and many alternatives work just as well—these are just ones I’ve used with athletes, so I’ve seen first-hand their effectiveness.

Excessive valgus places extreme stress on the Achilles and reduces the athlete's ability to produce force. Fortunately, many exercises can help reform the arch, says Kim Goss. Share on X

The first two steps can be performed simultaneously, but I recommend performing the final three sequentially because each builds upon the conditioning of the previous step. Specifically, the exercises in the third phase require considerable ankle flexibility, and the exercises in the remaining phases involve high-speed movements with high coordination requirements.

Step 1: Reform the Foot Arch

Valgus is a condition in which the feet collapse inward. Excessive valgus places extreme stress on the Achilles and reduces the athlete’s ability to produce force. Fortunately, many exercises can help reform the arch.

Image 4 shows two exercises Gagné prescribes to athletes with valgus feet, which are best performed barefoot:

1. 1. Hold a weight (such as a medicine ball), stand on one leg, and lift the big toe of the support leg. Holding the weight at about waist height, rotate side-to-side while holding up the big toe. Repeat the same number of reps for the other side.

 

1. Perform a front step-up with the big toe up on the support leg. To prevent pushing off with the back leg (to focus more on the front leg), lift the toes of the back foot. Align the working knee with the big toe during the exercise. Repeat the same number of reps for the other side.

Step 2: Restore Ankle Flexibility

“Fascia is connective tissue that surrounds and intertwines with the muscles,” says Gagné. “With inactivity, the fascia loses its flexibility and becomes weaker, making the muscles and tendons more susceptible to injury.” Variables such as excessive sitting, wearing improper footwear, and performing too much partial-range training can cause the fascia to restrict the ankle’s range of motion—more on this in the Achilles hygiene section. This flexibility issue must be addressed in the early stages of an Achilles training program training.

Image 5 shows a dynamic stretch of the gastrocnemius and soleus that can be used with resistance. It is performed on a platform high enough so that the heel can extend lower than the ball of the foot.

The exercise begins with the working knee slightly bent (to emphasize the soleus), the free leg lifted slightly off the platform, and finishes with the working knee straight (to emphasize the gastrocnemius). Note that the free leg does not touch the platform at any time. For variety, the toes of the support foot can be pointed inward to increase the stretch on the calf’s lateral (outside) part, while pointing the toes outward increases the stretch on the calf’s medial (inside) part. The exercise can also be performed barefoot.

Step 3: Strengthen Pelvic Muscles that Stabilize the Knee

The study of anatomy and biomechanics tells us that “everything is connected.” Besides strengthening the lower leg, it’s essential to strengthen the muscles of the pelvis, particularly those such as the piriformis that externally rotate the upper leg.

For this phase, I prefer single-leg exercises. Single-leg exercises are especially valuable for lower body stability and lateral movement because athletes support themselves primarily on one leg when changing directions.

When I started working with a high school girls’ basketball team in Utah about 17 years ago, the coach had to spend about 45 minutes before practice taping ankles because most of the girls had been suffering recurring ankle injuries. I had these athletes perform these types of exercises as part of their conditioning, and it paid off.

Here is what Head Basketball Coach Heather Sonne said about the results. “After about six weeks of using these exercises, my athletes’ conditioning improved so dramatically that I no longer had to tape any ankles. In fact, the only ankle injury we suffered since performing these exercises occurred in the final playoff game of the year, and it was an unavoidable accident that happened when one of our players’ feet landed on top of the foot of one of our opponents.” Success leaves clues!

Besides strengthening the lower leg, it’s essential to strengthen the muscles of the pelvis, particularly those such as the piriformis that externally rotate the upper leg. Share on X

Image 6 shows two types of single-leg squats, which, because one leg is extended, are often referred to as pistol squats. The first is performed between two platforms, such as weight benches, and the arms are used for assistance. When athletes can perform these squats without assistance, they should move on to pistol squats with dumbbells or kettlebells. (For more on pistol squats, Pavel Tsatsouline covered this exercise extensively in his book The Naked Warrior.) 

Another exercise that belongs in this phase is the ankle squat. It is a full squat performed with the heels together and toes flared outward to position the heels inside the pelvis.

Weightlifting Sports Scientist Bud Charniga saw elite Chinese weightlifters perform this exercise in training halls and has high praise for it. Charniga said this exercise “strengthens the calf musculature, especially the soleus; by a process called reverse – origin – insertion – contraction. The soleus muscle is lengthened under tension; as the shins tilt forward. Subsequently, these muscles pull the shins backward as they contract. Returning the shins from the tilted disposition acts to straighten knee and hip; as all links are interconnected through ankle, knee and hip joints.”

After a period of practicing ankle squats, the next progression would be performing barbell squat jumps with relatively light weights (starting with the empty bar). Unlike the popular hex bar jumps, these are squats performed with a full range of motion of the legs and a slight “bounce” out of the bottom. This stretch stimulates the bouncing out of the squat position in the snatch and the clean, reinforcing the elastic properties of the Achilles. Also, with this variation, you barely leave the ground. These two exercises are demonstrated in Video 1.

Video 1. Ankle squats and barbell squat jumps are dynamic exercises that work the Achilles throughout a full range of motion under load.

Step 4: Perform Jumps and Hops on Level Surfaces

The next step is to get everything working together quickly with fast jumps and hops. First, let me put a plug in for jumping rope. Jumping rope enhances stability and coordination at high speeds. Often, when the body is not stable or the athlete’s coordination is poor, the body’s response is to slow down or not react quickly enough (think “ankle breakers” in basketball).

Another practical exercise, and one that does not require any equipment, is the dot drill (Image 7), popularized by Bigger Faster Stronger (BFS) for the past 40 years. The dot drill involves performing a sequence of double-leg and single-leg hops on a pattern of five dots that form an X. BFS promoted it as a warm-up for weightroom, plyometric, and agility training.

Step 5: Perform Dynamic Movements on Angled or Curved Surfaces

After developing a foundation of elastic strength with the previous four steps, you can safely proceed to more advanced ankle and Achilles exercises. These exercises should not only help prevent Achilles injuries, but also enhance the elastic properties of the connective tissues to amplify power. But first, a story.

The Air Force Academy is a run-first team, and we often joked that our unofficial motto was “Passing is for cowards!” Consider that in 1990, the year we upset heavily favored Ohio State in the Liberty Bowl, our quarterback Rob Perez was averaging only 30 yards a game passing and didn’t have a single touchdown pass the entire season. In one game, a bad snap from center resulted in our kicker throwing for more yards than our quarterback! Perez certainly didn’t have a cannon for an arm (nor were his 40-time or lifting maxes impressive), but what Perez did have from a physical perspective was the ability to change directions quickly to help him make great running plays.

After developing a foundation of elastic strength with the previous four steps, you can safely proceed to more advanced ankle and Achilles exercises, says Kim Goss. Share on X

One coach told me that what expressly set Perez apart was his ability to cut quickly on his inside leg, enabling him to change directions a fraction of a second faster and throw off the defense’s timing. Also, because our offense required the guards to pull, lateral speed was a critical athletic fitness component of these positions. For these reasons, we emphasized many conditioning methods to improve lateral speed.

From a testing perspective, the 20-yard shuttle run was our best predictor test of lateral speed. Years of data we collected on the Air Force Academy Football Team found that performance in this test was associated with ranking on the depth chart. As for how to improve results on the 20-yard shuttle, I discovered that lateral jumps onto a slant board made significant improvements in the shortest time, particularly with our linemen.

About a decade after leaving the Academy, I started working for Bigger Faster Stronger (BFS) as their magazine editor. BFS developed a “Plyo Ramp,” a sturdy floor unit with three angled slant boards (two angles) and a non-slip surface. Unfortunately, the Plyo Ramp was large, heavy, and not practical in gyms with minimal space, so it never caught on in our primary market (high schools).

My interpretation of Occam’s Razor is that the best solutions are often the simplest and use the fewest elements, and Polish Plyometric Boxes fulfill this definition (Image 9). These concave and convex boxes, popularized in 1999 in the book Explosive Power and Jumping Ability for All Sports: Atlas of Exercises, are certainly simple. Further, they are relatively light and don’t take up much space.

Polish Plyometric Boxes enable the athlete to stretch and strengthen the Achilles through more extreme ranges of motion at high speeds. Resistance can be added with a weight vest or, as shown in the Explosive Power book, by holding a barbell across your shoulders.

The video below shows several Polish Plyo Box drills, dramatically demonstrating the ankle’s ability to react quickly to unique environments.

Video 2. Shown in this video courtesy of Skyhook, Polish Plyometric Boxes are practical tools for rapidly stretching and strengthening the Achilles through a wide range of motion.

Exercise is key to preventing Achilles injuries, but several other strategies must also be mentioned. They fall into a category you might call “Achilles Hygiene.”

What Athletes Must Know about Achilles Hygiene

Hygiene can be defined as “conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease.” More specifically, Achilles hygiene addresses non-training variables that may increase the risk of Achilles injuries. Here are four:

Risk Factor #1: Wearing Shoes with Elevated Heels

Whether for comfort or because they are fashionable, athletes often wear tennis shoes with elevated heels throughout the day. The elevated heels shorten their Achilles’ range of motion, almost like walking on the balls of your feet all day. For this reason, Gagné says these shoes can predispose an athlete to Achilles injuries and even lead to plantar fasciitis.

A better approach is to wear shoes with elevated heels when your sport requires it, such as with weightlifting, and wear walking shoes or shoes with low heels throughout the day—walking shoes have a lower heel and tend to have better lateral stability.

Risk Factor #2: Dehydration

Dehydration affects the elasticity of the tendons, causing them to behave like old rubber bands that easily snap when stretched. Although hydration is a complex subject beyond the scope of this article, consider that the cells will become dehydrated if there isn’t enough potassium or there’s too much sodium. This is often the case with consuming soft drinks containing high amounts of sodium.

Rather than trying to find a magic water-hydration formula, focus first on avoiding processed foods and high-salt sports drinks that can cause dehydration. Also, try to fulfill most of your water needs by consuming more fruits and vegetables.

Risk Factor #3. Too Much Sitting

Sitting for long periods has been associated with increases in blood sugar and body fat, orthopedic issues, and many other unnatural health conditions. Gagné also believes there is a connection between excessive sitting and Achilles injuries, as it can cause tightness and weakness in the fascia.

“Sitting can affect the function of the cerebrum, the part of the brain that controls muscle movement,” says Gagné. “The result is that kids are less athletic, and their reduced proprioceptive ability further increases their risk of injury.”

Risk Factor #4. Bad Medicine

Some medications prescribed to treat injury, pain, or infections can negatively affect the elasticity of the tendons, leading to rupture. One type of steroid used to relieve pain and reduce inflammation is cortisone, which is prescribed conservatively because it can weaken tendons.

Fluoroquinolones are a class of antibiotics that have recently received some attention as they treat respiratory issues, including COVID-19. That’s the good news. The bad news is that in a paper published in 2002, researchers conclude that these drugs may have “a direct toxic effect on collagen fibers” after just a single dose and “increase the risk of Achilles tendon disorders.”

Let’s add one more to our list—testosterone. Although there are many red flags with performing studies on athletes taking performing-enhancing steroids, we may infer some conclusions based on studies of those taking testosterone replacement therapy (TRT). TRT has become a billion-dollar business regulated by the medical profession, and the data pool is increasingly growing.

A 2023 study in the Journal of Foot and Ankle Research looks at 423,278 subjects, ages 35-75, who were on TRT for at least three consecutive months. The researchers conclude, “There is a significant association between Achilles tendon injury and prescription TRT, with a concomitantly increased rate of undergoing surgical management.” Additional studies have been conducted on biceps and quad tendon injuries with similar results.

Some medications prescribed to treat injury, pain, or infections can negatively affect the elasticity of the tendons, leading to rupture, says Kim Goss. Share on X

It’s not my place to give medical advice—after all, sometimes the best medicine is medicine. However, if athletic performance is a priority, consult your appropriate healthcare providers about any drug’s risks vs. rewards on tendon health and perhaps consider alternatives.

Beyond those four risk factors, other variables include age, hormonal fluctuations during a woman’s menstrual cycle, fatigue, training environment, nutritional deficiencies, equipment/gear quality, and, of course, coaching. That said, addressing these four Achilles hygiene variables is a good start.

Much more work is needed to educate coaches and the athletic population about preventing Achilles injuries. Hopefully, I’ve given you some practical ideas that may help you develop effective strategies to enhance athletic movement and reduce the risk of Achilles injuries.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Siu R, Ling SK, Fung N, Pak N, Yung PS. “Prognosis of elite basketball players after an Achilles tendon rupture.” Asia Pac J Sports Med Arthrosc Rehabil Technol. 2020 Apr 10;21:5-10.

Earp JE, Newton RU, Cormie P, and Blazevich AJ. “The influence of loading intensity on muscle-tendon unit behavior during maximal knee extensor stretch shortening cycle exercise.” European Journal of Applied Physiology. October 2013.

Gagné, Paul, Personal Conversation, October 6, 2024.

Charniga, Andrew, Jr. “It’s All Connected, Part III: Reverse Engineering Injury Mechanism.” Sportivnypress.com. July 10, 2015.

Goss, Kim. “Practical Steps to Prevent Ankle Injuries: Part 1.” March/April 2006, BFS magazine.

Goss, Kim. “Practical Steps to Prevent Ankle Injuries: Part 2.” May/June 2006, BFS magazine.

Tsatsouline, Pavel, The Naked Warrior, Dragon Door Publications; 1st edition, December 1, 2003.

Charniga, Andrew, Jr. “Ankle Squats.” Sportivnypress.com. February 10, 2024.

Starzynski, Tadeusz and Sozanki, Henryuk. Explosive Power and Jumping Ability for All Sports: Atlas of Exercises,‎ Stadion Pub, July 31, 1999.

Hygiene definition. Oxford Languages, languages.oup.com.

Cronin NJ, Barrett RS, Carty CP. “Long-term use of high-heeled shoes alters the neuromechanics of human walking.” J Appl Physiol (1985).

Valtin H. “Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.” Really? Is there scientific evidence for “8 x 8”? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2002 Nov;283(5):R993-1004.

Daneshmandi H, Choobineh A, Ghaem H, Karimi M. “Adverse Effects of Prolonged Sitting Behavior on the General Health of Office Workers.” J Lifestyle Med. 2017 Jul;7(2):69-75.

Van der Linden PD, Sturkenboom MC, Herings RM, Leufkens HG, Stricker BH. “Fluoroquinolones and risk of Achilles tendon disorders: case-control study.” BMJ. 2002 Jun 1;324(7349):1306-7.

Lareau CR, Hsu AR, and Anderson RB. “Return to play in national football league players after operative Jones fracture treatment.” Foot & Ankle International. 2016 Jan;37(1):8–16.

Albright JA, Lou M, Rebello E, Ge J, Testa EJ, Daniels AH, Arcand M. “Testosterone replacement therapy is associated with increased odds of Achilles tendon injury and subsequent surgery: a matched retrospective analysis.” J Foot Ankle Res. 2023 Nov 11;16(1):76.

Rebello E, Albright JA, Testa EJ, Alsoof D, Daniels AH, Arcand M. “The use of prescription testosterone is associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing a distal biceps tendon injury and subsequently requiring surgical repair.” J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2023 Jun;32(6):1254-1261.

Meghani O, Albright JA, Testa EJ, Arcand MA, Daniels AH, Owens BD. “Testosterone Therapy Is Associated With Increased Odds of Quadriceps Tendon Injury.” Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2024 Jan 1;482(1):175-181.

The NFL Combine is one of the most unique events in sport, a true example of peaking at very specific time. We aren’t training for 17 mini-peaks as we are in the NFL league season, or 82 competition nights like the NBA. You cannot truly “peak” for the Super Bowl or a National Championship—what if you never get there? NFL Combine preparation is like the Olympics, a snapshot in time to perform at your best. But instead of four years to prepare, you are lucky if you get nine weeks. This brings a need for a very specialized training layout—and, with that, the demand for a structured fueling program that aligns with these short, but vitally-important, microcycles.

Sports Academy is an elite training facility with locations in California and Texas, hosting large NFL and NBA Combine Preparation programs and NFL, NBA, and MLB off-season training programs. Yearly, Sports Academy hosts 40+ NFL pre-draft athletes handling all facets of their training, fueling, and recovery with a team of performance coaches, position coaches, physical therapists, performance dietitians, manual therapists, and psychologists.

Most athletes have had interactions with sports dietitians, so they have a basic understanding of performance nutrition. We fine-tune that info to meet the demands of Combine preparation, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

As we break down our Sports Academy “NFL Combine Fuel” program, it is important to consider the demands of each training phase. Understanding these physiological stimuli ensures we are supporting adaptation, performance, and recovery. According to Ursula Heyner, Performance Coach at Sports Academy, NFL Combine preparation training is divided into the following phases:

• Diagnostics: Week 0
• Acclimation/GPP: Weeks 1-2
• Accumulation: Weeks 3-4/5
• Intensification: Weeks 4/5-6/7
• Taper: Weeks 7-8
• NFL Combine/Realization: Week 9

Performance coaches and dietitians should note that each individual athlete gets a timeline unique to them. Did they play in the National Championship game and arrive to us in mid-January? Are they coming off an injury? Did their season end in late November, and they’ve been out of structured training/fueling for a month?

For the purpose of this article, we will discuss fueling to support each of these defined phases above, understanding that the duration an athlete spends in each will vary. 

The metabolic demands remain relatively consistent throughout our phases: ATP-PC dominant training with enough aerobic capacity to recover between reps and handle the overall workload. What will vary, and thus what drives our nutritional modifications through the phases, is the training demand. Is the phase lower or higher volume? Are we putting a premium on stress adaptation or recovery?

Nutritionally, we also need to get the athlete to an optimal body composition, allowing them to perform well on tests and position drills—but at a weight that favors their competition on field. According to Duke Manyweather with OL Masterminds:

“There are nuances with each individual player’s state, if we have a player that is 290 lbs. and struggles to anchor or whose play strength isn’t up to par, we need to explore putting on lean mass. On the contrary, if we have a 350-360lb athlete, we need to evaluate his body composition and investigate: Is he struggling to recover? How is his joint health? Can he sustain a high level of play at that bodyweight? If not, we need to get him leaner. For Combine, there is a fine line between getting a player (up or down in weight) to match a number, but potentially diminishing performance.”

Herein lies part of the challenge of fueling the Combine Athlete.

NFL Combine preparation is like the Olympics, a snapshot in time to perform at your best. But instead of four years to prepare, you are lucky if you get nine weeks, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

Three key concepts are important to note, as they are the main variables that we are supporting nutritionally in a concurrent fashion with varying degrees of emphasis:

1. Preparedness—This is long-term. It refers to the athletes’ overall level of training and, in this case, physiological output (strength, power, speed, etc.) and experience with the combine drills themselves.
2. Fitness—This is medium-term and refers to the athletes’ current ability to adapt and tolerate stressors as well as the volume and intensity of training.
3. Readiness—This is short-term and refers to the athletes’ current ability to perform on a given day. It’s most affected by acute factors.

We will be discussing fueling strategies to support and optimize all three of these factors so that we get the results we want at the appropriate time: during the NFL Combine.

Our main focus? Giving the athlete the best tools to manage stress and optimize the timing of their response to fitness vs. fatigue so they can adapt and recover on schedule, maximizing their performance during Combine week. As Bryan McCall, Director of Sports Performance at Sports Academy, puts it, “At the end of the day, this is the time to materialize untapped potential and showcase the full capabilities of the athletes to the football community.”

Many articles have been written on training protocols for Combine preparation, but how are we fueling athletes through these phases, promoting adaptation, fueling training demands, and supporting recovery? I’m glad you asked.

(Let’s also keep in mind that while we will be speaking specifically to preparing an athlete for the NFL Combine, you can apply these fueling principles to peaking for any athletic event that has a set and known timeline (think preparing championship boxers or mixed-martial artist competing once every six to nine months). The main theme in these preparations? “Support the athlete through the respective demands of each training phase.”)

Now, let’s break down how we fuel each phase, first by understanding the training demands on the athlete, then how we are supporting those demands with fuel, hydration, and supplementation.

Diagnostics: Week 0

An athlete can come to us anytime from mid-December to mid-January. Upon their arrival, we get busy with our nutrition intake and evaluation process while the Performance Team carries out diagnostic testing. Here, we gather a DEXA scan and resting metabolic rate (RMR) and meet with each athlete to analyze their fueling and hydration needs. During this evaluation, we discuss many facets of the athlete’s fueling and hydration, including (but not limited to):

• Current body weight/playing weight and where they see themselves for the Combine (note: since this may vary from what the Performance Team deems optimal, these discussions keep evolving as more data becomes available).
• Preferred foods and fueling patterns.
• Pre-, intra- and post-training nutrition they have used throughout their careers.
• Pertinent injury history.
• Current/past supplementation protocols.
• Sweat rate/concentration.
• How they evaluate their hydration status.
• Recent lab panels and current/previous nutritional deficiencies.
• Any nutritional challenges they have faced in their career.
• Anything they anticipate could be challenging during their time with us.

This is an important meeting to build rapport with the athlete and to let them know that we are there to support all their fueling, hydration, and supplementation needs. Building that trust is key as we look at adherence to protocols and buy-in. At this point in their careers, most athletes have had interactions with sports dietitians, so they have a basic understanding of performance nutrition principles. Our goal is to take that information, fine-tune it to meet the demands of Combine preparation, and fill-in knowledge gaps where necessary.

After this in-depth analysis, our sports dietitians meet with the Performance Team to discuss the needs of each individual athlete. We set goal body weight ranges and body composition change targets. These evolve over time as Performance Coaches gather more information about each athlete, see them move, watch them in drills, and listen to athlete feedback. We need the athlete to be confident moving at the weight range set for them. As a Sports Dietitian, my job is to take my knowledge and expertise, combined with athlete and coach feedback, to develop a plan that the athlete can execute to reach their performance peak.

This is an important meeting to build rapport with the athlete and to let them know that we are there to support all their fueling, hydration, and supplementation needs, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

Much of our work during this phase is done behind the scenes. We are developing the athlete’s fueling and hydration plan, composing their meals (we will discuss this at length in the next section), organizing their supplementation protocols, and constructing their pre-, intra- and post-training fueling regimens. When you are fueling a team with 100+ athletes, not a lot of individualization can occur. Here, we can really customize each protocol to the athlete, down to their post-training shake recipe and pre-bed supplement protocol. Our goal is to get them on their specific fueling, hydration, and supplementation program no later than three days into their time with us. When you have a short timeline, every day matters and introducing key concepts early reinforces their importance.

Acclimation/GPP: Weeks 1-2

Training Demands: This phase is a return to training for many athletes, and it serves multiple foundational functions:

• Allows the athlete time to restore functional mobility and stability after a long season or potentially a layoff.
• Gives them the opportunity to rehab minor injuries.
• Serves to prepare the involved musculature and connective tissue for the intense training to come.
• Allows the performance staff the opportunity to teach technical components that will be essential to the athletes’ performance down the road while still in a lower intensity environment.

Nutritional Support: Here, we are focusing on managing soreness while helping the athletes familiarize themselves with their fueling plan. Motivation is typically high in this phase and buy-in with nutrition the best of all the phases. These are crucial weeks as we look at building the foundation for what is to come.

Individualized meals are ordered based on the athlete’s nutritional needs, fueling preferences, and any food allergies/intolerances. Having a tested resting metabolic rate from our partner, Gatorade Sports Science Institute (GSSI), allows us to accurately prescribe caloric targets for the various workloads the athlete will encounter. Through our meal prep partner, Prep Kitchen, we can customize amounts and type of carbohydrates, proteins, and fruit/vegetables in each meal. For high-need athletes, we work to supplement meals with additional carbohydrates, fruits, and/or healthy fats to meet needs.

Ordering the most elite meals won’t help if the athletes won’t eat them—we work to find options they enjoy and communicate frequently on any adjustments that need to be made. Performance coaches, position coaches, physical therapists, and manual therapists all help message the importance of putting quality fuel in their systems to support high training demands and optimize recovery.

As a Sports Dietitian, I use my knowledge and expertise, combined with athlete and coach feedback, to develop a plan the athlete can execute to reach their performance peak, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

With the increased demand on the tissues in this phase, ensuring the athlete is meeting protein needs is critical. Prescribing protein targets of 1.7-2.0 g/kg is common here. We now know that the body can utilize greater amounts of protein in a single dose than we had once thought, with current recommendations set at .25-.4 grams/kg/meal to optimize muscle protein synthesis.¹ An athlete who has trouble fueling frequently will have larger protein targets at each meal.

Target macronutrient ranges will vary based on the respective athlete’s stats, individual response, and expenditure (here is where collaboration with the Performance Team is crucial, understanding workload on each day to ensure we are accurately prescribing nutritional protocols). For the purpose of this article, we will consider the needs of a 315lb Offensive Lineman with a calculated RMR of 3,150 kcals looking to maintain body weight. On a high workload day, this athlete will require between 5,435 and 5,985 calories, (physical activity level (PAL) factor of 1.725-1.9), hence the need for frequent fueling windows.

We can also consider how meals will be built for the above athlete. Remember that targets are individualized based on goal, intake data, and information from our evaluation. Once total calorie needs are set (tested RMR x PAL for each respective day of training), we calculate macronutrient needs: protein at 1.7-2.0+ grams per kilogram (or higher in a fat loss athlete), carbohydrates at 4-7+ grams/kilogram, and fats will make up the remainder of calories (at least 20% of intake). After subtracting pre-, intra-, and post-training fuel from these targets, we are left with what we need the athlete to intake from their three main meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner).

Often, one of these meals will be heavier than the others (think of an athlete who doesn’t like to fuel with large amounts of food mid-day for an afternoon speed session—we would then have higher targets at their dinner meal), but for the purpose of this exercise we will assume that we are equally dividing these targets between meals. Our calculations would then be:

• Carbohydrates (g) (after subtracting out pre-, intra- and refuel needs)/3 meals
• Protein (g) (after subtracting out pre-, intra- and refuel needs)/3 meals
• Fat (g) (after subtracting out pre-, intra- and refuel needs)/3 meals

A sample meal breakdown for our 315-pound lineman could look like

• Fat (g) (after subtracting out pre-, intra- and refuel needs)/3 meal
• ~1000 kcals
• 130 grams carbohydrate (520 kcals)
• 60 grams protein (240 kcals)
• 28 grams fat (252 kcals)

We are then able to build out the athletes’ meals to match the calculated targets. A chart with the sources we select from is shown in Figure 2. Amounts are selected by weight (oz.) to meet these needs. (Note that many athletes will also have a pre-bed snack to help get them to target and allow for a lighter mid-day meal.)

Base supplementation protocols are also implemented during these initial weeks. Through our partner, Momentous, we can provide elite, third-party tested supplementation to our Athletes. (See Figure 3 for a sample supplement protocol.)

A brief summary on the purpose of each protocol is below (note that each athlete will have a different protocol based on dietary intake and nutritional needs, but these are possible inclusions):

• Beet Root: Vasodilation (rich in nitrates) (if not using pre-workout).²
• Beta-Alanine: Attenuates neuromuscular fatigue (if not using pre-workout).³
• Pre-Workout: Caffeine, Beta Alanine, Vasodilator.⁴
• Collagen Peptides: Improvements in fat-free mass, tendon morphology, recovery.⁵
• Hydration/Carbohydrate Beverage: Carbohydrates to fuel training, sodium replacement.
• Creatine: Increases in maximal work output, power production, sprint performance, and fat-free mass.⁶
• Whey Protein Isolate: Highly bioavailable protein source, muscle protein synthesis.
• Multivitamin: Micronutrients to prevent deficiency.
• Vitamin D: Bone health, muscle protein synthesis, ATP concentration.⁷
• Omega-3s: Inflammation control, nervous system function, improving training adaptation.⁸
• Magnesium: Protein synthesis, cellular energy production, nerve and muscle function.⁹
• Zinc: Skeletal muscle synthesis and regeneration, role in proteostasis (if deficient in diet).¹⁰
• Ashwagandha: Improvements in strength, power, cardio-respiratory fitness, time to fatigue and recovery.¹¹
• Specific Pro-Resolving Mediators (SPMs): Inflammation control, promotes tissue repair.¹²
• Turmeric: Reduced soreness and inflammation.¹³

During the acclimation phase, we have not yet tested sweat rate/composition because losses are lower, so we are working off estimated and self-reported fluid and electrolyte targets. Our “base” recommendations for athletes are set at 1 oz. fluid/kg body weight, then a rehydration target of 20-24 oz. per pound lost during training. During this phase, these “in and out” body weights are recorded to understand individual losses. Our goal is to keep the athlete at a loss of no more than 2% body weight during a training session.¹⁴ In the next phase, when sweat rates are higher with increased workload, we will measure sweat rate and concentration to develop their customized hydration plan.

Ordering the most elite meals won’t help if the athletes won’t eat them—we work to find options they enjoy and communicate frequently on any adjustments that need to be made, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

Athletes coming off late bowl games may need to work to control inflammation and prepare their bodies for the accumulation and intensification phases during these initial weeks. Recovery, not adaptation, is the priority here. We focus on anti-inflammatory foods (dark leafy greens, fatty fishes, berries, nuts, extra virgin olive oil, tomatoes, etc.) and add turmeric/other high-antioxidant supplementation, such as tart cherry juice to their regimen (as discussed later, we do not utilize these during the entirety of the program as the inflammatory process helps signal training adaptation, and we do not want to attenuate the anabolic signaling process).¹⁵ These athletes are already utilizing, and will continue to use vitamin D, magnesium, and omegas, our other main supplement players in inflammation control.

Accumulation: Weeks 3-4/5

Training Demand: This is the “work” phase. Volumes start to climb as athletes are now prepared for the demands of the training. Repetition is key here as athletes practice the techniques taught by the performance staff and gain experience at the drills. Output (velocity) is still not as high in the field work as it will be because of several factors:

1. Exercise selection—the distances for speed work are still progressing from shorter to longer, often resisted sprinting occupies a slot here as acceleration is emphasized and top speed work is still sub-max in nature, and technical drills still occupy a portion of the volume as techniques continue to be reinforced and stabilized.
2. The weight room still plays a vital role here as athletes who are “under-powered” and need to increase ground reaction force (GRF) strive to improve those variables through resistance training protocols. Some athletes also might potentially be trying to gain muscle here and a certain amount of weight room tonnage is essential.

Because of the overall workload, athletes are not peaking here and might even appear on the surface to take a step backward as fatigue accumulates and their body adapts to the stressors placed on it.

Nutritional Support: During this higher volume phase, we want to ensure athletes are meeting their carbohydrate needs, which are greater in this phase (typically with targets set at 6-7+g/kg BW). Fatigue is high, and we can start to see motivation to adhere to nutritional protocols decreasing.

Having carbohydrate sources that are favorable and easy to grab/consume helps get athletes to target. More carbohydrate-dense carb sources are prioritized at meals (think rice and pasta vs. potatoes or yams). We also keep bowls of fresh and dried fruits, whole fruit juices, carbohydrate beverages, bagels, and other carbohydrate-rich items around the facility to support this higher need phase. For athletes needing to drop weight or change their body composition, carbohydrate intake is still very important to support adaptation to training stimulus and prevent injury—adjustments to sources and amounts are made to support those goals.

Sweat losses also increase here, allowing us to test sweat rate and composition to calculate exact fluid and sodium losses per hour of training. Individualized hydration plans can then be drawn up to ensure athletes are meeting these increased needs. As you can see in Figure 4 below, fluid and sodium losses can vary greatly between athletes. Electrolyte supplementation will be utilized for athletes with higher losses and those not taking in enough through their diet.

During this higher volume phase, fatigue is high, and we can start to see motivation to adhere to nutritional protocols decreasing, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

We keep different options in our toolbox to meet these varying needs, from moderate to high sodium (~500-1000 mg), and with varying carbohydrate amounts (~12-30 grams). Rate of fluid consumption is also important to note, and something we educate the athlete on. To avoid a diuresis effect, we want the athlete to drink frequently throughout the day and to space post-training rehydration over two hours (vs. “chugging” large amounts at one time). For the Sports RD, having many filling stations located around the facility, ensuring plenty of water is available at offsite training locations, and providing water bottles/jugs helps the athlete successfully execute their hydration plan.

Frequent touch points with athletes help maintain buy-in and adherence to meal, supplementation, and hydration plans, especially during this phase when fatigue levels are high. We want to make executing their fueling as seamless as possible, ensuring they have all the tools they need for success. This includes prepped meals, snacks, beverages, pre-portioned supplementation, and easy access to fluids and electrolytes. Remember, many of these athletes are staying in extended stay hotels during this time, so they may have limited food-preparation tools.

A mid-point body composition analysis is performed in week 4 to measure progress toward goal (lean mass increase, fat loss, etc.) and may drive adjustments to the athlete’s fuel plan. Remember that these adjustments are highly influenced by how the athlete is feeling, not strictly on the data. Our hope is to see increases in lean mass and a maintenance, or slight decrease, in fat mass on our gain/maintain athletes and a decrease in bodyfat levels with a maintenance of lean mass in our weight loss athletes. (Remember that the more aggressive the deficit we have the athlete in, the greater loss of lean mass we will typically see. This is where a conservative deficit that still supports the training demand is favorable.)

Intensification: Weeks 4/5-6/7

Training Demands: Intensity is the primary goal, so volume stops climbing and begins to decrease over the course of this phase. Technical drills and resisted running, while still present, take a back seat to full speed efforts. Repetitions decrease as sprint distances increase to a point where true max velocity can be achieved. Intensity in the weight room is still high, but volume begins to back off. Maximal effort performances are the emphasis here.

Nutritional Support: Cue nutritional strategies to support the central nervous system, an often-overlooked piece of fueling. While carbohydrate needs decrease a bit during this phase, they are still a vital part of the athlete’s fuel plan. Excitement and nerves are building here as we quickly approach the main event. Nutritionally, we reinforce our messaging with the athlete that these are crucial weeks, working to keep them locked in on their fueling, hydration, and supplementation.

In this phase, we will run our “Mock Combine” event in which we are able to test the fueling and hydration strategies we will use for the Combine. This “trial run” with pre- and intra-fueling and hydration helps us solidify protocols to use in Indianapolis. Remember, we have been practicing these the entire way (nothing new on competition day), but here we really work to nail down timing and specifics for each individual athlete. Amounts and timing will vary by athlete.

Let’s not forget that the mental preparedness component of Combine preparation is something we put great emphasis on, and we ensure our team provides fueling strategies to support athletes. We know the interaction between the gut microbiome and the brain (gut-brain axis), and stress to our athletes that what they are putting in their system affects not only physical performance, but also cognitive function.¹⁶ Preventing micronutrient deficiencies through food intake and supplementation (specifically vitamin D, B-vitamins,¹⁷ and iron¹⁸) are also critical here, as is consumption of DHA and EPA (omega-3s). Emerging research tells us that creatine supplementation may also be beneficial, especially in short-term memory and reasoning tasks.¹⁹

Taper: Weeks 7-8

Training Demands: Here, we are looking to stabilize the improvements made in the previous phases while enhancing recovery so that the athletes are fresh enough to perform their best when it counts. The hard training is over, and we are refining the athletes’ abilities while giving them the tools to achieve supercompensation and adapt to a level of performance beyond anything they have been capable of before. Recovery and readiness are the emphasis now.

Nutritional Support: As discussed earlier, we avoid using high-antioxidant supplements when possible throughout the previous training phases. With the short timeline, adaptation and anabolic signaling are crucial. The inflammation process, within reason, is beneficial to ensuring the athlete adapts to the stimulus placed on their system. Alternative recovery modalities are used throughout the program, especially where recovery, not stress adaptation, is the focus. According to Bayleigh Wheat, Performance Bodywork Specialist at Sports Academy:

“In utilizing advanced recovery modalities like Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT), Pulsed Electro-Magnetic Field Therapy (PEMF), and Low-Level Light Therapy (LLLT) from Eleve Health, we empower our athletes to push their limits while safeguarding their physical health. By implementing tailored recovery protocols after specific training sessions, we strategically enhance their ability to manage inflammation and optimize performance throughout the acclimation, accumulation, and intensification phases of training.”

Nutritionally, we wait until the taper weeks to implement some of these high-antioxidant supplements, with the goal of inflammation control and optimized recovery prior to the Combine. Here, we will add turmeric and SPMs to the athlete’s supplementation regimen and utilize tart cherry juice before bed. We will also put more of a focus on anti-inflammatory foods in this phase. The athletes will see more salmon, spinach/dark leafy greens, and berries in their meals. This is “crunch-time”—here, we strongly recommend athletes avoid consuming fried/fast foods and alcohol (this is the suggestion throughout the program, but stronger messaging is used in these weeks where acute readiness is vital).

While training volume and intensity are down during this taper, we keep fueling targets consistent with the intensification phase. This fuel is vital to the repair and recovery process and ensures the athlete will enter the Combine in a well-fueled state.

Body composition-wise, the work should be done. Our goal is to not have athletes drastically decreasing calories/carbohydrates or using dehydration strategies to lower their body weight, which can have a negative effect on performance. This is why adherence to protocols and execution throughout the eight weeks prior is crucial, and why we do a mid-point check-in at Week 4 to make any adjustments prior to this phase. Ideally, we can increase carbohydrates and calories for athletes who were in a deficit in the weeks leading up to the Combine.

We want the athlete to drink frequently throughout the day and to space post-training rehydration over two hours (vs. “chugging” large amounts at one time), says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

There is a lot of behind-the-scenes work going on here as we prepare all the fueling and hydration items each athlete needs to Indy. Like an away game, we want to keep things as consistent as possible, ensuring everything the athlete used during training is replicated for them in Indy. We will discuss this in the next section.

Realization: Week 9

Training Demands: This is where it all comes together as preparedness, fitness, and readiness intersect simultaneously and we seek to perfect the athletes’ performance. Timing is crucial, as everything we have done up to this point is irrelevant if the athletes leave PRs on the training hall floor. It is now “game time” and we want the athletes to feel good, look good, and perform at a level beyond anything they have ever seen. The focus is on putting the most confident, explosive, and healthy athlete possible on the turf at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indy.

Nutritional Support: Our main goal here is to ensure the athlete has everything they need to execute their fueling, hydration and supplementation. The last thing we want is them to put in all the work for the past eight to nine weeks then rely on fast foods or “wing-it” with their fueling and hydration. We need to cover each category of their nutrition: meals, hydration, pre- and intra-training fuel, recovery nutrition, and supplementation.

• Meals: Prepped meals, consistent with those the athlete fueled with for the entirety of the program, are shipped to our host hotel at the Combine, ensuring the athlete has well-tolerated, familiar foods available. Lower-fiber carbohydrates and lean proteins are prioritized here to support performance and minimize risk of GI distress.
• Hydration: It’s important to note that hydration needs are increased on travel days. Based on current recommendations we set a hydration target of 100-300 mL/hr. of fluid while in the air.²⁰ Hydration status is then evaluated after travel with adjustments made as necessary. Gallon water jugs and electrolyte supplements are provided to each athlete according to their hydration plan.
• Pre/Intra Fuel: Athletes are provided individualized bags containing the carbohydrate items they have used for pre- and intra-fueling throughout training and at Mock Combine. Timing and amounts should be matched as closely as possible to those utilized throughout the program.
• Recovery Nutrition: Ready to drink protein shakes, packets of whey/plant protein, carbohydrate-rich items, and tart cherry juice are all available to utilize after training/events and before bed, ensuring we continue to support the recovery process.
• Supplementation: Supplements are individually packed for each athlete similar to those utilized during the taper phase (multi, omegas/SPMs, vitamin D, magnesium, creatine, turmeric, zinc, ashwagandha).

As Sports RDs, our role at the Combine is to ensure athletes have what they need accessible at all times. This may mean running an athlete meals or fuel during a long day of meetings/interviews/medical or bringing refuel items for post-training. Athletes will typically arriv two to three days prior to their first event, a critical time to ensure they are well-fueled and hydrated before they take the field.

When nine weeks is all you have to prepare for one of the biggest stages of an athlete’s career, you need to look for every advantage possible, says @lindsey_rd. Share on X

During long days of back-to-back obligations, hydration can be challenging. Ensuring the athlete has water and electrolytes with them is key. There are a lot of moving pieces for the athlete here. Our job is to make nutrition, hydration, and supplementation easy to execute, not an additional stressor.

Our goal is to maintain a fueling schedule as consistent as possible with what we utilized during training. Three main meals, pre-, intra-, and post-training fuel, and performance snacks as needed/before bed. Timing will vary, but we strive to ensure we are hitting these fueling windows and avoiding long stretches without fuel/hydration.

When nine weeks is all you have to prepare for one of the biggest stages of an athlete’s career, you need to look for every advantage possible. Nutrition may feel like a small piece of the puzzle, but it can have a profound impact on training adaptation, recovery, and performance. By supporting each phase of training with targeted fueling, hydration, and supplementation, we help “set the stage” for an athlete to peak at a very calculated time. That time could be the NFL Combine, the Olympics…or even a big high school track meet. It’s any time the athlete needs to put forth an all-time best effort on a specific day or period of time. When we know the questions in advance, we can come up with the answers to the test.

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18. Jáuregui-Lobera I. Iron deficiency and cognitive functions. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014 Nov 10;10:2087-95. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S72491. PMID: 25419131; PMCID: PMC4235202.

19. Jáuregui-Lobera I. Iron deficiency and cognitive functions. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014 Nov 10;10:2087-95. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S72491. PMID: 25419131; PMCID: PMC4235202.

20. Zubac D, Buoite Stella A, Morrison SA. Up in the Air: Evidence of Dehydration Risk and Long-Haul Flight on Athletic Performance. Nutrients. 2020 Aug 25;12(9):2574. doi: 10.3390/nu12092574. PMID: 32854320; PMCID: PMC7551461.

As coaches, we excel in the delicate ballet between research and reality. Each day, we are forced to reconcile academic best practices with the stark realities we encounter. This is particularly relevant in the discussion of early sports specialization. In this high-stakes gamble between long-term health and immediate success, we often don’t know whether we’ve gone bust until long after that athlete has left our care.

Unlike a chef who can instantly recognize a charred steak, the repercussions of our decisions as coaches may take years to manifest—and by that time, they likely won’t be attributed back to us. I’ll admit, in my most insecure moments, this prospect haunts me.

Every once in a while, I receive messages from athletes that I haven’t trained since their teenage years. It’s usually a question about training methods or issues related to their current injuries. Knowing that they still value my opinion after all these years brings me a sense of accomplishment that far surpasses any trophy or medal. Yet, I can’t help but grapple with the nagging thoughts: “How much did I contribute to that injury?” and “What about the athletes who had to retire due to injuries?”

Unlike a chef who can instantly recognize a charred steak, the repercussions of our decisions as coaches may take years to manifest, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

These lingering thoughts inspired me to write this article and explore the complex landscape of early sports specialization while reflecting on my experiences as a coach. I draw upon the challenges faced working across different continents, from my time as an elementary school PE teacher to my role as a performance coach for developing teens and established professionals.

The State of Play

Type “early specialization” into any search engine and it’s clear that this is a hot topic—I found at least eight TED Talks dedicated to it. Head over to your go-to research database and you’ll find enough data to make your head spin.

So, what does the current research tell us?

A commonly used definition of early sports specialization is the practice of engaging in intensive training in a single sport for more than eight months a year and typically beginning at a young age—often as early as 5 or 6, but normally before ages 12-13 or adolescence.¹ However, any coach with a basic understanding of load management knows this barely scratches the surface. Diving deeper, several studies have attempted to qualify early specialization using weekly hours and categorizing participation as low, moderate, or highly specialized.^2,3

Concerns raised by researchers include:

Physical Effects

• Increased Injury Risk: Young athletes who specialize early are at a higher risk of overuse injuries due to repetitive movement patterns.^5,2
• Delayed Physical Development: Early specialization can impede the natural physical development of young athletes, leading to imbalances and long-term health issues.^6,7

Psychological Effects

• Burnout: A singular focus on one sport can lead to emotional exhaustion and a diminished passion for the game, particularly in young athletes who feel pressure to perform.^8,9
• Increased Anxiety: Young athletes may experience heightened competitive anxiety, which can negatively impact performance and overall enjoyment of the sport.^10,11.12

Social Effects

• Reduced Social Interaction: Specializing early often limits opportunities for young athletes to engage in diverse social activities and develop interpersonal skills that come from playing multiple sports.^1,13
• Family Pressure: Families may inadvertently create an environment of high expectations that can strain relationships and lead to feelings of inadequacy in young athletes.^14,15,16

Developmental Effects

• Narrow Skill Set: Focusing on one sport too early can hinder the development of a well-rounded athletic skill set, making it harder for athletes to adapt to new demands later in their sporting careers.^7,17
• Limited Career Longevity: Early specialization often corresponds with shorter athletic careers, as the athlete may burn out or sustain injuries that curtail their potential.¹⁸

As expected, this data is not without its critics, and rightly so.

Many of these studies fail to adequately account for the number of sports and recreational activities individuals engage in during that period, or how time is distributed among them.  Furthermore, other stressors, such as academic demands, are often overlooked.

As shown by my rugby academy player example, it will often fall on us as the performance coaches to deviate from the program or regress if we believe it's in the best interest of the athlete, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

It has also been noted that a number of the studies in the area suffer from considerable selection and recall bias¹⁸; meaning they rely on self-reported data from athletes, their parents, or coaches. Further still, many don’t consider other potentially influential variables in their studies, such as stage of physical maturation.¹⁶

Despite these shortcomings, we should probably cut researchers in this field a little slack. Even with clear definitions, standardizing research with this population is a daunting task.

And let me be clear, as a performance coach and a father, I am by no means endorsing early specialization. After all, S&C coaches make careers out of instructing athletes to perform auxiliary exercise, with the aim of enhancing performance in their primary activity. For me to suggest varied physical activity doesn’t offer a beneficial “cross-training” effect would be absurd.

Additionally, as coaches, we understand better than most just how slim the chances are for an athlete to succeed. Supporting this perspective, a 2019 NCAA study revealed that only 1.2% of high school athletes advance to Division I level sport and this figure predictably declines to less than 1% for those making it to the professional ranks.²⁰

So, why are so many young athletes, parents, and coaches willing to risk it all? One explanation is the societal trend for immediate success and fame, along with the allure of potential scholarships or professional contracts make it worth the gamble.

Early Specialization in Europe and America

The tradition of youth academies in European sport is well-established, with renowned institutions like FC Barcelona’s La Masia and Manchester United’s Academy being recognized talent mills. Lionel Messi serves as a prime example. His journey illustrates how early specialization can cultivate incredible talent in a supportive environment that also nurtures personal growth.

However, not all athletes experience the same trajectory; there are poignant stories of individuals who struggled under the weight of early expectations. My experience working with rugby academies is no different. Most athletes participated in rugby nearly year-round. While they participated in other sports, this created a different issue.

These talented individuals were often asked to participate in nearly every competitive school sport. As you can imagine, these driven youngsters, who never shy away from a challenge, jumped at the chance. Kids like this want to support their friends and put more trophies in the school cabinet, often at the expense of their own well-being. By the time two-thirds of the academic year had passed, I frequently had conversations with coaches asking, “What have you done with athlete X? He’s packed on some muscle,” to which I would reply, “I gave him two weeks off.” Naturally, these imposed breaks were often met with protest from the athletes, but they quickly learned the value of rest once they saw the rebound in their recovery markers.

Whilst the academy system isn't fully adopted in American sport, early specialization is still prominent, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

Whilst the academy system isn’t fully adopted in American sport, early specialization is still prominent. Programs such as travel baseball and club basketball place a heavy emphasis on sport-specific training from an early age with the carrot being dangled of a pathway to higher education and professional leagues. Recent changes to NCAA rules likely won’t help the situation either.

I fully agree that athletes deserve a share of the fortune that’s being made off of their backs, but try telling a high school football player to take a day off once they learn how much Shedeur Sanders is earning. I recently witnessed a top high school football induction where the coaches asked players why they were there. The first kid replied, “To grow my brand.”

Watching the different coach’s facial reactions to this comment was incredibly entertaining.  But this left me with a question: as an industry that stresses the importance of empathy, are we doing enough to truly understand parents’ and athletes’ drive to specialize early?

Early Specialization in Southeast Asia

Something that never fails to amaze me is how many unconscious biases creep into my thinking. I often believe I’ve been thoughtful, levelheaded, and considerate—then, whack, it hits like an ex-professional tight-head prop turned coach, taking a sly jab at the S&C coach during a friendly game of touch rugby.

If you think you’re immune to this trap, grab your kit bag and head to the other side of the planet from where you currently sit. It’ll likely be the most accelerated learning experience you’ll ever have.

A few years back, I had the incredible opportunity to coach in Southeast Asia. I entered the role fully aware of the differing practices I would encounter, or so I thought. In fact, the cultural shift was one of the aspects that excited me most: an opportunity to reevaluate my methods and principles in a truly different setting.

One of the first things that instantly struck me was the intensity with which these athletes pursued their craft. The pressure to succeed and excel extended beyond personal ambition; it was a responsibility to their families that I had never witnessed before.

What I hadn’t fully considered was how the economic landscape dramatically influenced early sports specialization. Sure, I’ve seen rugby players from working-class backgrounds earn scholarships and pro contracts, but for these young athletes, success in sports can lead to financial stability for their entire extended family. We’re not talking about a new truck for dad or a home for mom; these athletes can create multi-generational wealth. Even being on the bottom rung of a government-sponsored program could provide an income that eclipsed the national average wage.

For example, I worked with a highly successful Paralympic athlete who became a national star. His success supported multiple families back in his hometown. Before joining the national program, he left school early to help provide for his family by paving roads. While I respect those who take on such jobs—someone has to do it—given the choice between full-time training or manual labor in annual daily temperatures exceeding 80°F (27°C), I know which path I’m choosing. Yes, I might end up hating the sport and suffer physical and psychological injuries, but I’d like to know how that differs from a career in construction.

This realization left me feeling embarrassed: who am I, with my relatively privileged perspective, to question their motivations? While the same risks apply to them, their choices look profoundly different. For these athletes, sport is not just a passion; it’s a lifeline and a pathway to a better life, despite the considerable risks involved.

Moreover, athletes in this region often see neighboring countries, notorious for early specialization, achieve success on the world stage. Just look at the Chinese diving team at the 2024 Olympics—they took home seven gold medals out of eight events. I’ve seen firsthand how this program doesn’t meet our Western ideals, and it’s eye-opening to observe.

These young divers are drilled as early as ages 6 and 7 in China’s sports academies. These schools follow a rigorous selection process with highly focused and intensive training methodologies that can be hard for a Western-educated coach to watch. My personal experience of witnessing these practices is etched into my memory as some of the most difficult moments of my professional career.

In Southeast Asia, we're not talking about a new truck for dad or a home for mom; these athletes can create multi-generational wealth, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

While this system has undoubtedly brought success on the world stage, it’s hard to morally justify the risk-reward equation at play here. Crucially, the countries that I’ve seen attempt to emulate the Chinese model often overlook a key factor—population size. Lacking the vast talent pool that nations like China possess, and considering estimates that only 0.01% of competitive athletes reach the Olympics, these programs can impose unsustainable pressure on young athletes.

Imagine for a moment that you’re the performance coach in this scenario. How much extra volume will you throw on top of a young athlete’s load for the sake of variety? This assumes, of course, that they listen to you in the first place.

Putting moral arguments aside, this approach poses an interesting question: in sports where technical skills are crucial, can such mastery be achieved without a singular focus? Given what we know about Hebbian learning, the role of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in movement refinement, as well as the importance of myelination and synaptic pruning for neural efficiency, at what age should we start training these skills to align with an athlete’s physical peak?

Such examples continue to question the role of specialization in achieving excellence. Is our globalized world pushing more societies towards this hyper-focus on early specialization? And are we as coaches paying close enough attention to these societal pressures before implementing training plans?

Cultural Contradictions

Why do we continue to see a push toward early specialization? Well, in the West at least, it could be a reflection of our conflicted society. On one hand, we express concerns about this trend; on the other, we celebrate young prodigies who achieve success through relentless dedication.

Take Simone Biles—her journey perfectly encapsulates this contradiction. Starting from just 8 years old, she devoted herself to gymnastics, training tirelessly to become a sensation. This unwavering commitment has deservedly earned her “GOAT” status. However, her challenges in Tokyo are rarely linked to early specialization risks. Instead, the media frames her story as a testament to the power of dedication and hard work

This isn’t a one-off. Every day, sports media celebrate someone who completes 1,000 repetitive motions. YouTube rakes in millions of views of child music prodigies, and parents proudly share stories of kids dedicating hours to academics. In a society that preaches 10,000-hour rules and “practice makes perfect,” it’s no surprise that children feel pressured to specialize. And so, the cycle continues.

Crucially, the countries that I've seen attempt to emulate the Chinese model often overlook a key factor—population size, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

Anecdotally, many of the most interesting and successful people I know were singularly focused from a young age. As adults, you can see the experience has left its scars, but name one person who reached the pinnacle of their field while maintaining a sense of “balance”?

This links to the idea of “Post-Traumatic Growth” (PTG), which suggests that overcoming adversity can lead to strengths, resilience, and new perspectives. But, as Angela Duckworth points out, children who experience trauma need a supportive environment with caring mentors or stable relationships to help them turn those experiences into grit instead of negative outcomes.

Ethical Support Systems: Ensuring Holistic Development

Most practitioners who have mentored young athletes will likely agree that pressure and adversity are integral to a rounded development, but as subject matter experts, we owe a duty of care to those we mentor. We must not shy away from our responsibility within the young athlete’s support structure.

Pressure may forge diamonds, but it also crushes other equally precious gems.

Blaming the issue on sports management or our cultural traditions isn’t wrong, but what does that do to help our athletes on Monday morning?

Shifting perspectives on early specialization is a formidable task, and contemplating the concept as a whole is enough to overwhelm even the most ambitious coach. Instead, I believe we need to take advice from our own playbook and concentrate on what we can control. What actionable steps can we take today to make a meaningful impact?

1. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Be the Glue

I’ve always sought to promote a unified approach to youth athlete development where possible. Good relationships and trust among everyone involved form a supportive backdrop for athletes’ growth. This approach not only emphasizes their physical development but also prioritizes emotional and social well-being,¹⁹ enabling athletes to thrive in every aspect of their lives.

For me, learning to master difficult conversations was transformative in this process. It allowed me to facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration among coaches, educators, and parents. I found the book “Crucial Conversations” to be a great starting point for reflecting on my communication skills. I say starting point, because I believe this is one of those skills that can be continuously improved.

2. Balance Long-Term and Current Development

As youth coaches, part of our mission is to equip athletes with a toolbox that ensures their success once they move on from our program—but not at the expense of their current development. For instance, while I rarely program complex Olympic lift derivatives for high-school athletes, there’s a high chance they’ll go into a program that does. At a bare minimum, I want them to be proficient in the underlying movement patterns and know how to successfully bail a lift.

I believe a well-designed curriculum should strike a balance with such structured practice and free play. This ensures that athletes not only develop fundamental movement patterns but also foster a love for physical exploration.¹⁹ That’s not to say we can’t develop specific physical qualities while also promoting free play. The rise of the Constraints-Led Approach has demonstrated how we can adjust tasks and environments to influence behavior while fostering creativity and adaptability. Sprinkle in an emphasis on autonomy, add competitive elements, and I believe you have the perfect environment for learning.

3. Monitoring and Adapting Training Programs

As shown by my rugby academy player example, it will often fall on us as the performance coaches to deviate from the program or regress if we believe it’s in the best interest of the athlete. In a perfect world, programmed recovery weeks would suffice, but these weeks often get filled with other strenuous activities. In these situations, having a standardized monitoring system has been essential.

When developing load monitoring systems, I ask myself these five questions:

1. Can it alert me to something we believe needs to change?
2. Can it detect things that need changing that we are currently unaware of?
3. Can it be done with validity, reliability, and in a simple and timely manner?
4. Does it allow me to easily adjust training for each athlete’s unique needs and growth stages?
5. Is it informing training or is it detracting from it?

Though my methods for load monitoring have evolved over time, these qualifying questions have remained constant. Meeting this criteria has provided confidence during those difficult conversations with athletes and their support teams as I know my decisions are grounded in solid rationale.

I believe a well-designed curriculum should strike a balance with such structured practice and free play to ensure athletes develop fundamental movement patterns and foster a love for physical exploration, says @_RyanHicks. Share on X

In full transparency, while I’ve seldom shied away from boldly sharing my decisions with other stakeholders, improving those communication skills has allowed me to be more tactful in making them agree.

4. Education and Support for Parents: We Don’t Know What We Don’t Know

It’s essential to equip parents with knowledge about the risks and benefits of early specialization. After all, our education system doesn’t adequately teach nutrition, rest, and mental well-being for adults, let alone developing children. Just as I’ve always tailored my coaching to cater to different learning styles, I try to do the same for parents.

I’ve found that, for the most part, people fit somewhere between the following three categories. Covering these bases has helped me communicate this valuable message and build parent trust.

The Learner (Step-By-Step)

• Who It Appeals To: Parents who thrive on clear, methodical instructions and want in-depth guidance to feel confident in executing tasks.
• Content: Detailed, step-by-step instructions for parents who prefer structure and precision.
• Format: Written manuals, thorough video tutorials, and detailed checklists.

The Explorer (Hands-On Learning)

• Who It Appeals To: Parents who enjoy learning through experience, experimenting with different approaches, and seeing demonstrations in action.
• Content: A variety of multimedia formats that engage parents in active learning.
• Format: Interactive videos, workshops, and role-playing exercises.

The Doer (Quick Reference)

• Who It Appeals To: Parents who prefer minimal theory and just need something practical they can use immediately.
• Content: Simplified cheat sheets or quick guides that are handy during the task itself.
• Format: Cheat sheets, infographics, task flow charts, and mobile-friendly reference guides.

Yes, creating resources takes a lot of time. In my experience, it’s well worth the effort. Not only does it help parents better understand what we want to achieve in our sports program but it also confirms our commitment to their child’s development. Plus, having clear and accessible resources can assist in minimizing confusion and misunderstandings, ultimately leading to a more positive experience for both parents and athletes.

5. Cultivate Athletes Who Ace Both Fields

Over the years, I’ve received more than one call from a disgruntled academic advisor inquiring whether an athlete was at training instead of attending class. Admittedly, as I watched them sprint around the field in front of me, my personal disdain for authority and aversion to classrooms tempted me to swiftly say “get lost.” However, I’ve come to realize that programs tackling athletic and scholastic achievement better prepare athletes for life on and off the field.²²

I’ve learned the wiser move is to get academic advisors and other educators on your side early. This could be as straightforward as reaching out to synchronize study halls or tutoring sessions with practice timings. By taking these steps, we ensure that young athletes aren’t put in a position where they’re forced to choose between sports and education. Moreover, a lot of youngsters haven’t learned to play “the game” yet, and by the nature of their developmental stage, they will make mistakes. Having some goodwill built up with academic departments can be invaluable if you ever have to go to bat and advocate for an athlete facing the consequences of a less-than-ideal decision

6. And…Better Empathize

I encourage us all to pause and reflect on whether we truly understand our athletes’ and parents’ aspirations or motivations. Are we imposing our own wants or prejudices onto them?

Investing time to ask about their concerns and objectives has served me well. Although, here’s something I’ve been guilty of forgetting—making sure to actually listen. Remembering to do this fosters trust, and you might just uncover something you didn’t see coming.

I believe we should strive to build environments where nurturing future talent goes hand in hand with addressing the urgent needs of today. By embracing different perspectives and fostering empathy, we can better support young athletes on their journeys, helping them prepare for both challenges and successes.

As mentors, our role isn’t just about building athletic skills; it’s about guiding these young rockstars to become resilient, well-rounded adults.

Don’t get bogged down by the bigger picture; focus on what you can change today, and keep in mind that our true success isn’t just in the medals we win, but in the lives we positively impact.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Côté, J., Lidor, R., & Hackfort, D. (2009). ISSP position stand: To sample or to specialize? Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to continued participation and elite performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 7-17.

2. Jayanthi, N. A., LaBella, C. R., Fischer, D., Pasulka, J., & Dugas, L. R. (2015). Sports-specialized intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: A clinical case-control study. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(4), 794-801.

3. Brito, J., Malina, R. M., Seabra, A., et al. (2012). Injuries in Portuguese youth soccer players during training and match play. Journal of Athletic Training, 47(2), 191-197.

4. Fabricant, P. D., Lakomkin, N., Sugimoto, D., et al. (2016). Youth sports specialization and musculoskeletal injury: A systematic review of the literature. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 44(3), 257-262.

5. Woods, C. T., McKeown, I., Keogh, J., & Robertson, S. (2018). The association between fundamental athletic movements and physical fitness in elite junior Australian footballers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(4), 445-450.

6. Bell, D. R., Post, E. G., Trigsted, S. M., Schaefer, D. A., McGuine, T. A., & Brooks, M. A. (2018). Prevalence of sport specialization in high school athletics: A 1-year observational study. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(6), 1469-1474.

7. Côté, J., & Vierimaa, M. (2014). The developmental model of sport participation: 15 years after its first conceptualization. Science & Sports, 29(Supplement), S63-S69.

8. Myer, G. D., Jayanthi, N., Difiori, J. P., Faigenbaum, A. D., Kiefer, A. W., Logerstedt, D., & Micheli, L. J. (2015). Sports specialization, part II: Alternative solutions to early sport specialization in youth athletes. Sports Health, 7(5), 437-442.

9. Jayanthi, N., Pinkham, C., Dugas, L., Patrick, B., & LaBella, C. (2013). Sports specialization in young athletes: Evidence-based recommendations. Sports Health, 5(3), 251-257.

10. Smith, R. E. (1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8(1), 36-50.

11. Gould, D., & Whitley, M. A. (2009). Sources and consequences of athletic burnout among college athletes. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 2(1), 16-30.

12. Goodger, K., Gorely, T., Lavallee, D., & Harwood, C. (2007). Burnout in sport: A systematic review. The Sport Psychologist, 21(2), 127-151.

13. Fraser-Thomas, J., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2008). Understanding dropout and prolonged engagement in adolescent competitive sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 645-662.

14. Wiersma, L. D. (2000). Risks and benefits of youth sport specialization: Perspectives and recommendations. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12(1), 13-22.

15. Harwood, C. G., & Knight, C. J. (2015). Parenting in youth sport: A position paper on parenting expertise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16(1), 24-35.

16. Baker, J., & Young, B. W. (2014). 20 years later: Deliberate practice and the development of expertise in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 135-157.

17. Gulbin, J. P., & Weissensteiner, J. R. (2013). Functional sport expertise systems. Talent Development & Excellence, 5(1), 25-43.

18. DiFiori, J. P., Benjamin, H. J., Brenner, J. S., Gregory, A. M., Jayanthi, N., Landry, G. L., & Luke, A. (2014). Overuse injuries and burnout in youth sports: A position statement from the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(4), 287-295.

19. Aspen Institute. (2015). Sport for All, Play for Life: A Playbook to Get Every Kid in the Game. Project Play. Aspen Institute Sports & Society Program.

20. NCAA. (2019). Estimated Probability of Competing in Professional Athletics. Retrieved from here.

21. Malina, R. M., Rogol, A. D., Cumming, S. P., Coelho e Silva, M. J., & Figueiredo, A. J. (2016). Biological maturation of youth athletes: Assessment and implications. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(13), 852-859.

22. Cronin, L. D., & Allen, J. B. (2017). The development of a sport-specific measure of need satisfaction: A sociocultural perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 28, 119-130.

If you’re an S&C Coach, you probably sit on one side or the other of the Olympic lifting fence. Whether you use them or not, it is hard to deny their benefits for athletes. Whether you are chasing force production, rate of force development, or even mobility, it’s hard to deny that these benefits (and more) can be gained by getting good at the clean or snatch variations.

I personally competed in Olympic Weightlifting for over five years, so I know firsthand how challenging and fun they can be. Because of that, you might look at me and say, “Oh, you must be an Olympic lifting guy.” However, even I don’t use them with all my teams and athletes. For me, they are just tools in the toolbox—I can use the tools to get those benefits, but they are not the only ones I have (nor should they be for you). I most often use them with our volleyball teams, but also have used them with soccer, track and field, and rugby. Plus, I typically just use the hang power variations of snatch and clean, sometimes dabbling into other variations (muscle snatch, clean pulls, etc). More often than not, I will stick with the basics (and easiest to learn), which are the hang power variations. “Hang” meaning the movement starts above the knees and “power” meaning you catch it above 90 degrees.

I want to share with you the way I program Olympic lifts and how I have used this system to develop some pretty powerful kids who throw up some HUGE weight, says @chergott9. Share on X

When I competed in weightlifting, I had a coach who would write my programs. Those would be periodized out with percentages so that I would peak for my next competition. As an S&C coach for athletes, I very rarely use percentages. While I would love to dive into my thoughts on that, that is a topic for another article.

So, your next thought might be, “How do you program Olympic Lifts for your athletes without percentages?” That is a great question and the main idea behind this article.

The Rep-Drop Method

I want to share with you the way I program Olympic lifts and how I have used this system to develop some pretty powerful kids who throw up some HUGE weight.

Video 1. Here is one of our volleyball guys throwing 3 plates around for a double. Crazy.

For starters, Olympic lifting is much more technical that other lifts. When it comes to progressing in the Olympic lifts, it can be quite easy at first because there is such a large skill component to it and you are able to increase the weight simply by getting better at the skill of doing them.

But, once your technique becomes “good,” the gains come very slowly. Yes, they come slow for squats, bench, and deadlifts too once you are moderately trained, but I have found that a technical lift like the Olympic variations come even slower. While I do not exactly know why, my best guess would be simply because the exercise is so technical. Plus, it’s done very fast, so it isn’t something you can just “grind through” like a heavy bench or squat set. You either get the rep or not within the first 0.5 seconds. So, if you are feeling at all sluggish that day, it’s over for you.

For an S&C coach who doesn’t use percentages, and whose athletes don’t compete in that as a sport, what is the best way to prescribe sets and reps to ensure gains? Here is my answer, says @chergott9. Share on X

Using percentages in Olympic Weightlifting can be a great way to wave load, deload, and accumulate volume so that you can hit your PRs at the right time (in competition). But for an S&C coach who doesn’t use percentages, and whose athletes don’t compete in that as a sport, what is the best way to prescribe sets and reps to ensure gains? Here is my answer and what I have found to work quite well over the last 3-4 years with my teams.

This is actually quite simple, and while I have used it with other exercises (squats, bench) I find that it works the best for the Olympic variations. Therefore, I consistently use it with them. For weight selection, I always encourage athletes to choose a weight they can confidently get for four reps at first, then each week we progress. The idea is not to hit a 4RM Week1, then a 3RM Week 2, etc., but to gain experience hitting good quality reps to learn the movement for the heavier work to come.

• Week 1: 4 x 4
• Week 2: 4, 4, 3, 3
• Week 3: 4 x 3
• Week 4: 3, 3, 2, 2
• Week 5: 4 x 2
• Week 6: 4, 3, 2, 1
• Week 7: Restart at 4 x 4

Simple, right?

There are probably many reasons why it actually works physiologically, but here are three reasons I like it:

1. With an explosive movement, you want more volume to get the most benefits from it as well as more “practice” to learn the technique (hard to learn with one set). So, doing four is a great way to get lots of work on it without taking too much time (we only have one-hour slots and more exercises to do in a session than just these).
2. Doing five reps is cardio with Olympic Lifting (especially for volleyball players), hence I drop the hard/accumulation weeks to four reps. Still sucks, though.
3. With this, you have six weeks of programming all lined up. Six weeks is a great amount of time to make gains and progress over the course of a semester. And the progression makes it simple to add weight because there are less reps every week. By dropping a rep each week, athletes have a better chance of adding more weight to the bar.

While the first six weeks are great, Week 7 is where the magic starts to happen. The goal when you restart in Week 7 is that you do more weight. So, while the weight you use for four reps in Week 1 might not change when you do four reps in Week 2, the goal is that you add 5-10 lbs to at least one set of four when you hit Week 7. Then, more weight in Week 8 than Week 2, and so on. It sounds simple and maybe too easy, but it really does work.

Giving athletes a chance to go for it and do more weight than they have ever done before is a pretty potent training stimulus and effective way to challenge the mind and body, says @chergott9. Share on X

I know progressive overload is something we all preach (add weight to the bar), but this six-week cycle gives athletes time to not only get stronger but get better at the movement with lots of reps. Because we perform so many reps, when we get around to the second or third cycle, they are able to add weight. This way, we aren’t forcing more weight onto the bar with the same rep scheme week to week and we end up “starfishing” our catches. We add weight because the reps go down. Then, we are able to add weight because we are more powerful and better at cleaning or snatching.

Plus, with this style, every six weeks you get a shot at a new PR (personal record). I always tell athletes that you don’t HAVE to hit a 1RM those weeks, but just go for something heavy. I know the injury risk of Olympic lifting isn’t super high, but it isn’t exactly low as far as weight room exercises go—so having them max out is not something I am a huge fan of all the time, especially in-season. However, giving athletes a chance to “go for it” if they feel good and do more weight than they have ever done before is a pretty potent training stimulus and effective way to challenge the mind and body.

There you have it. Simple. Effective.

Trusting the Process

As mentioned, I have been using this with some of our teams—primarily volleyball teams—365 days a year for the last 3-4 years straight (save for a couple weeks here and there where we take a break from these lifts). Obviously, it takes lots of hard work and commitment to the process, but I have been blessed to work with athletes who trust me, work hard, and love to learn and get better at these lifts. Plus, these athletes have often commented on how much better they feel on the court, how confident they feel, and how much higher they are jumping. Over the last couple of years, the most frequent comment their coaches give me is “Cole, the team is looking very physical,” so I feel like that is a good thing to hear!

Again, you can see the video above of our volleyball teams getting after it, or find more on our Instagram page (@twustrength)—they love it! And while their progress is obviously a product of their hard work in the weight room, this template for programming allows that work to create gains and progress to being the beasts they are.

Peace. Gains.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

The widespread use of wrist and ankle weights began in earnest during the 1980s as America’s fitness culture was reaching an apex. Step aerobics in particular saw these as a way to increase leg resistance and build firmer muscle tone. While benefits like increased strength and speed accrued for some wearers, drawbacks like injuries and muscle strain occurred for others. By the early 1990s, with little understanding of factors like proper load and placement in professional training circles and elsewhere, these wearable weights began falling out of favor.

As recently as 2020, however, during the height of the COVID pandemic when gyms were shuttered and athletes were seeking new methods for speed and strength development that were viable in isolated locales—often with limited space and equipment—wearable weights began seeing a resurgence. But that’s only part of the story. The tech age had simultaneously ushered in a wealth of new data that more effectively analyzed the relationship between load, placement, velocity, and results so athletes could improve the benefits while minimizing risks wearable weights.

The combined load on both ankles should be around 1% to 2% of your body weight, or one to three pounds, whichever is less, when you first start wearing weights, says @mhfilmz. Share on X

While weights can obviously be worn on many parts of the body to boost workout intensity, this article specifically focuses on the application to joints like wrists and ankles, which are unique in both their strengths and vulnerabilities. The challenge is to determine optimal conditions for maximizing performance while reducing adverse effects that can regress and even completely negate the prior benefits accrued by using such weights. While joint-specific studies regarding the application of these weights are still somewhat limited, significantly more data now exists than did during their earlier heyday.

How Do Wearable Weights Work?

Adding weight to your wrists and ankles essentially increases your overall body weight, which means your cardiovascular system and muscles need to exert more energy to move your body. The greater the load, the more resistance to those body parts and the stronger they become. And while greater resistance over time doesn’t always translate to superior sports performance, which can be affected by myriad outside factors, improvements to muscle mass, metabolic rate and cardiorespiratory fitness have been evident in studies conducted by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

However, placing added weight at the wrist or ankle will likewise influence specific parts of the body. For instance, ankle weights not only significantly affect the ankle, but the calf, knee, and thigh, while weights placed above the knee dramatically reduce the effect on muscles below the knee. We see the same effect when weights are placed at the wrist rather than higher up the arm. Moreover, the Jacksonville Orthopaedic Institute claims ankle and wrist weights don’t actually make ankles and wrists stronger, leaving these joints vulnerable to injury if overloaded.

What Are the Benefits?

According to NSCA-certified personal trainer and running coach Amber Sayer (MS, CPT), ankle and wrist weights offer an effective, hands-free option for cardio and strength training that not only builds muscle and boosts resistance to calves, quads, hamstrings, glutes, arms, shoulders, and upper back muscles, but also increases caloric burn rate, mitigates the chances for injury when used properly, and helps prevent bone density loss. The NIH actually found ankle and wrist weights can increase bone mineral density an average of 1% to 3%.

Additional studies have signaled even greater benefits. An article published in the Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences in October of 2016 cited a five-month Malaysian study that determined “ankle-wrist weight training leads to changes in body composition and anthropometric parameters with potential cardiovascular disease risk reduction.” Moreover, a slightly longer six-month study applying ankle and wrist weights for 20-minute durations, three times a week “lowered participants’ waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body fat percentage.”

Adding weight to your wrists and ankles essentially increases your overall body weight, which means your cardiovascular system and muscles need to exert more energy to move your body, says @mhfilmz. Share on X

To be certain, more research needs to be done to replicate these results, particularly in athletes who already have a propensity for lower body fat and better body composition. But a 2017 NIH study found 10 weeks of resistance training also led to improvements in speed, movement control, functional independence, cognitive abilities, and self-esteem—all while increasing resting metabolic rate by 7%, improving insulin sensitivity and decreasing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides.

What Are the Risks?

More weight doesn’t necessarily lead to better performance, and, unfortunately, too many wearers are prone to excessive weight that might put an unhealthy amount of strain on the wrists and ankles. In addition, most experts decry the use of any amount of weight on these areas during cardio workouts, which can overwork muscles, destroy muscle balance, and place excess strain on the joint, resulting in ligament or tendon injuries to the hip, back, knees, shoulders, elbows, and neck, as well as the wrists and ankles themselves.

According to Terry Downey, a physical therapist with the Harvard-associated Spaulding Rehabilitation Network, avoid any wearable ankle weights during an aerobic workout “because they force you to use your quadriceps and not your hamstrings, (which) causes a muscle imbalance.” She further adds that a similar imbalance is prone to occur when wrist weights are applied during cardio as you swing your arms back and forth.

How Do I Determine How Much Weight to Wear?

Determining weight load should be based on several factors, including your fitness goals and where you’re currently at in your training. However, a common rule of thumb corresponds the load to your total body weight, which will increase as your resistance training builds muscle mass. The combined load on both ankles should be around 1% to 2% of your body weight, or one to three pounds, whichever is less, when you first start wearing weights. The combined wrist load should be about the same.

Sayer recommends initially allowing 48-hour intervals between workouts using wrist and ankle weights, and then gradually decreasing this window as your body acclimates. She also suggests a gradual addition of weight as each exercise starts to feel easier, resulting in a more steady, consistent, and measurable increase in performance over time. As you get accustomed to the weights and notice improvements across strength and power metrics, you may increase to a combined ankle load of between 5% and 10% of your body weight. Same for wrists.

However, in situations where sprinting, agility, momentum, and torque are paramount, trainers may suggest a lighter load to achieve the necessary force and acceleration that begets quickness. “The future of fast is light, as wearable resistance uses micro-loading to provide sprint-specific resistance training as part of your sprint training,” says John Cronin, Professor of Strength and Conditioning at AUT University in New Zealand. In this method, gains in strength will be more readily apparent through sprint performance.

Who Should Avoid Wearable Weights?

If you’re experiencing pain in your back, hips, ankles, knees, wrists, shoulders, or elbows, or if you otherwise have balance and gait issues, especially resulting from a recent injury, you should be cautious, as exercising with ankle and wrist weights could exacerbate these problems.

Likewise, they should be avoided if your workouts are predominantly cardio-focused or involve high-impact movements such as plyometrics. Wearable weights also pose a safety concern if you have a history of ligament tears, dislocations, sprains, or tendinitis.

How Do I Know I’m Using the Weights Correctly?

Getting positive results from wearable weights is based on using them for targeted, low-impact resistance exercises like lunges, leg lifts, arm circles, and bicep curls. The weight should be placed directly above the ankle or wrist, and the straps should be fastened tightly enough that the weight doesn’t slide around. The weights should not be left on for extended periods of time, which can lead to muscle and joint pain as well as chafing and skin irritation.

Having a measurable system to track performance metrics along with clear performance objectives will ensure proper increased gradation of load and duration without compromising the wearer’s safety, says @mhfilmz. Share on X

Dr. Adil Ahmed, an orthopedic surgeon at the Baylor College of Medicine, recommends starting with 30-minute intervals and then increasing duration as strength, endurance, and other resistance training benefits begin to bear fruit.

What Are Some Viable Exercises to Do With Wrist and Ankle Weights?

Wrist Only:

• Cuban Presses
• Pivot Pickoff Throws
• Two-Arm Overhead Throws
• Pronation Swings
• Prone Bicep Curls

Ankle Only:

• Single-Leg Glute Bridges
• Double-Leg Glute Bridges
• Side-Lying Hip Abductions
• Prone Hamstring Curls

Wrist and Ankle:

• Superman Holds / Pulses
• Rocketman Holds / Pulses
• Goblet Squats with Arm Extensions
• V Holds

Final Takeaways

The effectiveness of ankle and wrist weights stems largely from how they are employed. Clear delineation exists between right and wrong methods of utilization, regardless of the wearer’s level of fitness. Use during targeted, low-impact exercises for limited amounts of time and in a proportionate ratio to total body weight offers the best chance for improved biomechanics, including increased speed, strength, muscle mass, and endurance, while also limiting the potential for joint and muscle injury.

Having a measurable system to track performance metrics along with clear performance objectives will ensure proper increased gradation of load and duration without compromising the wearer’s safety.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Wescott, Wayne L. (July-August 2012) Resistance Training is Medicine: Effects of Strength Training on Health. NIH National Library of Medicine, Pub Med.

Carmel PT, DPT, Justin M. (2024) Ankle Weights Workout, Is it Good or Bad? Jacksonville Orthopaedic Institute.

Yaacob DrPH, Najib M., et al. (October 2016) Dumbbells and ankle-wrist weight training leads to changes in body composition and anthropometric parameters with potential cardiovascular disease risk reduction. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, Volume 11, Issue 5 , Pages 439-447.

Wearable weights: How they can help or hurt. Harvard Medical School, Harvard Health Publishing. (February 15, 2021)

Cronin, John. The Future of Fast Is Light: Wearable Resistance Load and Placement. SimpliFaster.

Wrist and Ankle Weights: Do They Actually Work? Baylor College of Medicine. (January 16, 2024)

Can I ask you a question, Coach? she asked.

Of course, fire away.

Are we ever going to do any actual conditioning?

If I were prone to conspiracy theories, I’d swear the kid was a plant—this conversation popped up after one of my June practices, just as online disputes were coming to a boil regarding Tony Holler and Brad Dixon’s Sprint-Based Football clinic, which set about challenging traditional views on conditioning and weekly training volumes for high school football.

This player, an incoming freshman, had just joined my multisport soccer team and with new players, the most common question I get is “why do we always jump so much?” The answer to that I have down: “To help you girls get faster, more explosive, and build resilience in a sport where a lot of kids your age get injured. And since no one’s ever taught most of you how to jump, if you leave my team able to hop, jump, backpedal, skip, and sprint, whatever else happens, that’s a win.”

The conditioning question, though, was a first because…my practices aren’t a walk in the park. But, like many teen soccer players, she was accustomed to finishing practices either spread out on a line and running gassers or knocking out laps around the pitch.

You’re not tired, I asked?

No, I’m pretty pooped, she said.

What did we do that made you tired, do you think?

Well, there were the sprints and jumps at the start and the passy-thingy and then the transition game was pretty tiring.

Right, I said. That’s the conditioning.

No, she said. But I mean conditioning-conditioning, like running after practice. Do we ever do that?

Conditioned to Conditioning

A few years ago, I interviewed Darcy Norman, Performance Coach with the US Men’s National Soccer Team, and he defined conditioning simply as: the ability to endure the demands of what is put in front of you. For many youth soccer players, what is regularly put in front of them are:

• Jogging laps before and/or after practice.
• Repeat “sprints” box to box or corner flag to corner flag.
• Line drills, gassers, suicides (whatever clever and catchy name you prefer to call COD sprints to failure).
• Sets of burpees or push-ups, either as punishments for failing to execute a technical, tactical, physical, or mental skill in the course of practice or just because burpees are hard.

Most 12-16 year-oIds do not have the natural ability to endure repeat sets of 20 burpees or 100-yard gassers or 20-30-40-50-yard repeat sprints. Soccer is a hard sport and running 100-yard gassers is hard and youth soccer coaches assume that if they can get their players conditioned for that second hard thing it will, by some clear-cut application of the transitive property, prepare their athletes for the first hard thing. And if those demands are put in front of the players practice after practice, over time, they will become conditioned to endure those practice conditions.

Soccer IS hard and running gassers IS hard & youth soccer coaches assume that if they can get their players conditioned for that 2nd hard thing it will, via the transitive property, prepare their athletes for the 1st hard thing. Share on X

Video 1. Here’s a routine attacking moment from one of my teams (high school freshmen and sophomores competing at a regional club level), selected not for anything noteworthy but instead because it’s a routine, recurring game action for this age level (mostly players who will be on their high school’s JV teams).

In that game moment, you see:

• A couple of 2-3 yard bursts.
• Backpedaling, quick/coordinated turns, and moving efficiently at various angles oriented to the ball or to teammates/opponents or to a gap in open space.
• An 8-10 yard burst into open space by the #11 (right wing) to receive a pass.
• The #10 (center-mid) makes a 30-yard run (accelerating ~8-10 yards at ~80-85% of her sprint speed) which is a result of her physical, technical, tactical, and mental abilities.
• (What you don’t see because it’s boring: after the ball ends up out of play, it takes 15-20 seconds to restart from a goal kick).

In that game moment—or, for that matter, anywhere in the entire 80-minute game—you ALSO don’t see:

• Anything that resembles players jogging a lap around the goal posts or much that immediately relates to steady-state running.
• Anything that resembles players running back-and-forth until their legs/bodies are at the point of giving out.

Those absent game moments were also what my baffled new player was missing—and, what she had been conditioned to: running for the purpose of achieving exhaustion/fatigue to finish a training session. She’s not alone—this is what a large percentage of youth athletes associate conditioning with and, if you ever take a fundamental NFHS coaching course, many of their warnings and “teachable moments” on the topic address the institutional pervasiveness of this type of conditioning.

Here’s our practice plan from that June day that “appeared” to lack a dedicated conditioning element:

The demands placed in front of the players across the 90 minutes in this session are not easy to endure physically, mentally, technically, or tactically—the training session was meant to be fast-paced and challenging. And, it was meant to prepare players for the game moments they would not just need to endure, but those they would need to excel in over time.

In addition to game-relevant movements, as a matter of planned volume accumulation, the diamond passing pattern includes 4 x 35-yard self-paced jogs each rotation. 5 rotations each direction covers ~1400 yards and in 10 minutes of working on the day’s game-relevant focus skill, the players also accumulate ¾ of a mile of autoregulated running volume (Does this produce the same aerobic adaptations/cardiac benefits as steady-state jogging? No, I know it does not. More on that later).

What Is Speed In Soccer?

Whatever their current level, most youth soccer players have an opportunity at some point to also “play up” a level: an ECRL player guesting with an ECNL team, a G2010 player guesting with a G09 team, a JV player getting called up to Varsity for a game, etc. Upon returning to their normal team, inevitably, the first thing that player will remark upon is how much faster everything was at that next level of play.

What makes each next level faster? Well, first, faster players.

In addition to physically faster players, what makes THE GAME faster at each progressive level are that the technical, tactical, and mental skills are also a full click more advanced, says @CoachsVision. Share on X

In addition to physically faster players, what makes THE GAME faster at the next level are that the technical, tactical, and mental skills are also a full click more advanced. Take the routine game moment shown earlier and instead envision an equivalent moment played out by my club’s G09 ECNL (national level) team or the Varsity teams at these players’ high schools.

What would be different outside of pure physical speed?

• Technical: Cleaner 1st touches in the initial transition moment—this would force the defensive side out of their compact shape and compel them to cover more ground at pace due to the ball moving more decisively (better possession also leads to the ball spending more time on the pitch and less time out of bounds, which leads to more total player actions and a “faster” feel to the game because of fewer stops/restarts).

• Tactical: A greater emphasis on closing space defensively—with more practice pressing and closing down balls, defenders at a higher level do so with greater intensity and purpose, which limits time/space for offensive players to make decisions. And attackers learn to create space with multiple types of runs to disorganize the defense—so rather than drifting toward a possible pass/cross, there would be more incisive and purposeful runs into gaps, forcing the defenders to react accordingly.

• Mental: More players “switched-on”—at every moment in the clip, 2-3 players are moving to be available for a pass, whereas with another year of development (and at the next higher level) 7-8 players should be moving to be active participants in the attack, and that anticipation/movement combines to create an elevated pace/electricity.

Being fit enough to endure a 40-minute half doesn’t matter if a player can’t play fast enough to get into the game for 10 minutes. So, how do you teach youth soccer players to play faster? Well, first you have to teach them to do the thing—they can’t do faster what they can’t do period. They can’t learn a faster/more efficient first touch if they can’t take a considered first touch unopposed, they can’t learn to make varied runs if they don’t know why to be a willing runner and where to make those runs, and… it’s hard to learn the difference between a game with everyone on the pitch switched-on and engaged unless they progressively gain more experience and learn to feel the difference.

From a developmental perspective—and youth soccer is developmental—being able to endure the demands put in front of them is not a useful skill until they are able to execute the demands being put in front of them.

From a developmental perspective, being able to ENDURE the demands put in front of them is not a useful skill until they are able to EXECUTE the demands being put in front of them, says @CoachsVision. Share on X

Fast AND Fit

My favorite pro soccer players are the most well-conditioned. Not the most technically-gifted, not the flashiest, not the biggest goal-scorers—I like to watch the ones who cover the most territory with the most competitive fire. Achraf Hakimi and Theo Hernandez on the men’s side, prime Kelly O’Hara and now Trinity Rodman on the women’s side.

In the 2024 Champions League semifinals, one of the most electrifying in-game battles was PSG’s Hakimi dueling with Borussia Dortmund’s Karim Adeyemi down the flank, attacking and defending each other from touchline to touchline with ludicrous pace and stamina. Though Adeyemi’s team came out ahead and advanced, Hakimi won the individual duel—each game in the home-away set, there was a definable “throw the damn towel” moment around the 70^th minute where Adeyemi’s legs went rubber and he looked one firm nudge or stumble from going down for the count. He would be subbed off shortly after, looking relieved, having put in a truly heroic effort.

Hakimi has regularly been tracked at 22-23 mph in game actions and covers 8-9 miles in a 90 minute game (Theo Hernandez, meanwhile, averaged just over 10km p/match in the 2024 Euros). Let’s be very clear—when we talk about conditioning for youth or high school soccer players, we are not talking about the same thing as conditioning for an elite international player. When Darcy Norman and I have a conversation about the demands on our players, those demands bear very little resemblance to each other.

Any time online debates about conditioning become heated, most of those who criticize “conditioning” are specifically targeting old-school, Junction Boys-inspired conditioning to collapse—sets of 12 x 100s, line drills on a whistle, repeat suicides (again, the common practices that players expect and that the NFHS needs to continually warn coaches against in their educational materials).

Meanwhile, those arguing most passionately in support of conditioning tend to be advocating for soundly-progressed and carefully-monitored conditioning practices that are research-and physiology-based. Like elite international soccer vs. youth soccer, the practices being denounced and those being promoted… do not bear any substantive resemblance to each other.

For my own athletes, in previous articles and elsewhere, I have repeated my belief that any competitive athlete over the age of 10 should be able to roll out of bed in-season and run a 5k in 30-35 minutes without keeling over. Three miles is not far and a 10-12-minute mile is not fast (and yes, I get it, there are outliers in terms of lineman in football, bigs in basketball, and others for whom jogging 3 miles could be unwise due to body type, joint/tissue stress, other reasons).

How do youth athletes develop the capacity to endure a 1-3 mile jog? With limited practice time and the high cost to rent fields and pay for lights, jogging around the outside of that field for 25 minutes tends not to be the optimal use of time and money; but, that doesn’t mean you can’t put the demand in front of your athletes and provide the right encouragement.

If players live in California and attend a public middle or high school, they will need to run a mile in PE somewhat regularly. Encourage your players to run that mile with a competitive goal in mind vs. walking and talking with friends. If your team practices twice a week, encourage your players to use one of their off days to plan a 20-25 minute run someplace they find peaceful and enjoy running (a park, a trail, the beach, their neighborhood, wherever). Can’t run for 20 minutes? No problem. Run until they need to stop, walk for one minute, start running again…repeat as necessary for 20 minutes. Keep at it and keep trying to push the stopping point where they have to slow and walk until they can run a full 20 minutes.

A self-paced 2+ mile run has almost all upside: provides repetitive foot contacts that can improve general running form, develops the aerobic system to support all those other energy systems more frequently tapped into in soccer, enhances the parasympathetic nervous system’s ability to aid recovery, and improves overall cardiac health in ways that ideally become a lifelong habit for active kids to grow into healthy adults. All of these benefits will be more pronounced in a 20-25 minute autoregulated run than in 8-10 minutes of laps after a 90-minute practice.

What do MY Soccer Players Need to Be Conditioned to Endure? Common Factors that Impact Conditioning

One of the broader challenges with planning conditioning for youth soccer is that you cannot generally work backward from the game demands—those will vary wildly player-to-player and game-to-game, depending on:

• Speed and technical/tactical ability—Players who are faster, more confident, more technically-gifted, and more tactically aware will have more ability to impact the game and cover more ground in total than those who are slower and less impactful (and keep in mind, for those who appear slower and less dynamic, the issue is not that they are not FIT enough—it’s that they are not FAST enough).
• Position/Shape—Do you play a 4-3-3 or a 3-5-2 or a 4-4-2? A wide attacking player will have different responsibilities in different shapes…and even in the same shape, an outside back playing the #2 or #3 in a more conservative 4-3-3 system may cover less ground than a #2 or #3 in a more attack-minded one
• How long are the games and what are the substitution rules? A summer tournament game for 15-year-olds may be 2×30 minute halves and a fall regular season game could be 2×40 minute halves. Some leagues/showcases do not allow players who are subbed off to re-enter the game during the same half, while others do. Consequently, at a similar competitive level, some players need to be conditioned to play a full 40-minute half and others only need to be conditioned to play 20 minutes, rest 5 minutes, and then play 15 minutes.
• How big is the field? That same 15-year-old may play some games end-zone to end-zone on a full turf football field and others on a more compact 90 yard by 70 yard grass pitch. Turf plays faster than grass. Narrower fields have more balls out of bounds (down time). Fields rimmed by tracks have more out of bounds balls that then roll a distance (even more down time).

At a similar competitive level, some players need to be conditioned to play a full 40-minute half and others only need to be conditioned to play 20 minutes, rest 5 minutes, and then play 15 minutes. Share on X

The biggest issues I see in youth soccer with coaches “conditioning” their players are that they are not working from the game in either direction. Instead:

• Volumes are fixed, excessive, and appear arbitrarily-chosen (12 sets of 100s!). The intensity is then not based on managing that volume, but is instead dictated by the coach shouting FASTER and PUSH like they are driving galley slaves to row harder.
• Conditioning is tacked on after practice with no connection to the volume and intensity of the preceding session…which may have already included a lot of high-intensity running volume.
• Outputs don’t resemble the sport in terms of speed, movement patterns, directionality, or duration.
• Lack of variation/fun—coaches have a lot of different names for suicides, but it’s all the same miserable line sprints.

Instead of working backwards, work forwards—develop players capable of executing your training session at pace. If they can’t? Here are a few things I like to mix in.

1. Off-Season/Early-Season Conditioning: Medball Conditioning Circus

Most youth athletes do not have an “off-season” where they drop everything and spend 3 months doing cannonballs at the pool, loitering around the mall, and playing video games.

But, if they’ve been traveling or there’s been a training gap of 2-4 weeks, general conditioning circuits are a very useful way to rebuild the stamina to endure the demands of their upcoming practices. I like these because for the athletes it feels more like skilled work towards a goal and less like a grind of mindless crushing labor.

2. Mid-Season: The World’s Greatest Sprinting Game

During our fall competitive season, there will inevitably come a dog-days of October stretch where we’re practicing twice a week and playing both Saturday and Sunday, the players are all getting slammed with other sports and activities, homework and tests, school dances and Friday night football games, all throughout one of the year’s longest unbroken strings of full academic weeks. Amid the all-of-thatness, I dial some things back to keep the athletes upbeat and engaged.

But, dialing back will, by definition, risk coming at the expense of being conditioned to endure the demands being put in front of them. At one time during this stretch, we’ll swing the opposite direction and wrap up an early-week training by playing “The World’s Greatest Sprinting Game.”

• Split into two teams of different colors and have the players alternate on one touch line. Set ½ as many cones as the total number players on an opposite touch line (50-60 yards depending on age/level).
• On “GO” players sprint across the field and try to retrieve an available cone. Every player must cross the opposite touch line whether they get a cone or not, and after crossing the line they immediately turn and sprint back.
• The first 3 players carrying a cone who finish across the original touch line score a point for their team. The last 3 players to cross the line lose a point for their team.
• Play 3 rounds with a rest period of approximately the time it takes you to re-set the cones.

Physical: Your fastest players will get the cones every round (I have never had a player finish in the top 3 but not have a cone), but getting back in the top three will vary round-by-round and the closing 10-15 yards will be very competitive among those players.

Mental: Your slowest players do not have to compete stride for stride over 100 yards with your fastest—their job is to push themselves to not be the weakest link, which is crucial in any “weak-link” sport. Not being in the last 3 is more a test of will than of speed or fitness and they’ll push themselves to do their role and not cost your fastest players the points they’ve earned.

Technical: Getting a step and running into the line of an opponent to beat them in space is a crucial soccer skill and also a key to success in being the players to get to the cones.

Tactical: Your fast and high Game IQ players will realize that winning all 3 races is unlikely…although this is a conditioning game, as a coach, it is gratifying to watch your fastest kids figure out how to WIN based on the established rules. The first round they may line up next to another fast player out of competition or next to a friend or at random, but in subsequent rounds they will purposefully line up in more tactical ways. They’ll start to talk strategy while you reset the cones—discussing with their teammates who should line up where, who should go all out for the point and who can save something in reserve for the next race while still not being anywhere near the bottom group.

At the end of three rounds, my girls will crash out on the field and look like Tony Holler’s 400m runners after a lactate workout…which tracks, since they will have just pushed to sprint all out for 360 yards in a matter of a few minutes. But, conspicuously, they end more on the giddy side of the exhausted spectrum than the broken side, still talking trash and knowing they’ve just competed through a hard thing. (Another conditioning game I started adding last year is the curved sprint variation of Drew Hill’s Infinity Tag from his Game On article—competitive, adds variety, self-regulating, and achieves a conditioning stimulus while similarly hitting positive instead of negative receptors).

3. Late Season: Beep-Test

Many high school athletes are anxious about conditioning tests, for all the reasons kids fear things: they don’t understand the way they will be conducted, they think it’s unfair to be tested on something that matters less than other important things, and if they fail they don’t want to be split off from the group and marked with that UNFIT scarlet letter.

Taking a judo approach to those fears, you can flip the Beep Test and use it as a conditioning means—for my club teams, I’ve done one during an early week practice at the tail end of the fall season, a couple weeks before the players have tryouts for the winter high school soccer season.

• Judo Move #1: Have the players all come check out the app or system you are using to run it. Kids like apps, as you may be aware. Explain the set-up and protocol very clearly so they understand they are not just there running blindly until they fall over.
• Judo Move #2: I have players from eight different high schools on my multisport team alone. So, I explain that WE are running it not as a test but as a confidence-builder and developmental tool just in case coaches at some of those eights high schools do use a version of the Beep Test in their tryouts or early season player assessments.
• Judo Move #3: Make this a team-driven activity and not an individual competition. They should all pace off each other, encourage each other, and once players begin dropping out, keep encouraging those still running. There is no consequence for dropping out and no threshold that MUST be reached.

It’s hard but not that hard—players who have been playing games every weekend and training regularly perform just fine and as a conditioning means, you can get a more upbeat and engaged 15-17 minutes of conditioning from running this one time than 15-17 minutes of just about any other form of running.

Okay, Coach, What Next?

Instead of working backward from the game, work backward from your understanding of conditioning. Does it come from an understanding of physiology and how to progressively develop energy systems to work in concert to meet a range of sport and lifestyle demands? Fantastic, carry on, you got this. Does it come from the old school WE WILL OUTWORK THE ENEMY coach you had back when you played in the 1980s & 90s who, in turn, adopted their approach from coaches they had in 1950s in an era when sport coaches were often WW II veterans who’d learned that boot camp methods could effectively turn unfit and unmotivated teenagers into an effective fighting unit (which, importantly, could reduce their chances of getting killed)?

Just like the demands of youth sports and the demands of elite sports don’t resemble each other, the demands of youth sports and the demands of close contact warfare don’t resemble each other either. Share on X

Just like the demands of youth sports and the demands of elite sports don’t resemble each other, the demands of youth sports and the demands of close contact warfare don’t resemble each other either. In 10 years of coaching competitive soccer spanning 500+ games…I’ve never had a team that was physically, mentally, technically, and tactically superior but lost a game solely because our less-able opponent was better able to repeat their abilities over time while we could not endure the demands of the game.

My own understanding of conditioning falls into the dreaded it depends category because I fully agree with Darcy Norman, that conditioning is the ability to endure the demands of what is put in front of you and what is put in front of different players at different levels will be very, very different. One thing that is not different is that every soccer player trains to get better…and given that, by far the most simple and effective starting point I’ve found is Tony Holler’s imperative to “make practice the best part of a kid’s day.” Beginning there—with kids who want to show up and train with joy and purpose—over time, they will naturally become conditioned to what is being put in front of them.

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…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

In-season, immediate sports performance is the primary goal; thus, proper stress management is crucial. Given the heavy game schedule in team sports, coaches need to find ways to optimize the time efficiency of concurrent training by combining different stimuli. Small-sided games (SSGs) are often used to improve motivation, sport-specific movement efficiency, tactical awareness, and technical skills. The intensity of exercise SSGs can be modulated by manipulating variables such as field dimensions, player numbers, technical rules, coach encouragement, and the type of exercise regime (continuous vs. intermittent), making them an effective method for improving metabolic conditioning via inducing aerobic, anaerobic, and neuromuscular adaptations in a time-efficient manner.

While all metabolic conditioning ideally should be done through playing and practicing the sport, as it’s challenging to replicate the physical and emotional stress produced by the sport, it’s crucial to recognize the potential drawbacks of small-sided games as a tool for improving metabolic conditioning such as:

• It is difficult to precisely standardize the overall load of SSGs due to the variability of responses within players. This variability can lead to differences in cardiovascular responses and neuromuscular responses as well as inconsistent blood lactate.
• Data shows that the average oxygen consumption (VO2) is inversely related to VO2max during SSG, suggesting a possible ceiling effect for VO2max development in fitter players.
• While being enormously flexible, SSGs may not always be highly specific to competitive games.
• Overexposure to high-intensity competitive drills during SSGs may increase athletes’ risk of acute injuries.

Figure 1. Visual representation of SSG in soccer, figure via Ryan Cotter’s article “Training Your Substitutes in Soccer.“

It is important to note that besides SSGs, responses among players during actual games are significantly variable. Scientific literature establishes that factors such as playing time, position, competition level, and playing style, among other elements, affect the players’ external and internal load.

While all metabolic conditioning ideally should be done through playing and practicing the sport, it’s crucial to recognize the potential drawbacks of small-sided games for improving metabolic conditioning. Share on X

Non-specific conditioning methods do not substitute for small-sided games (SSGs) and the actual game, but rather complement them as individualized tools that provide a controlled environment for developing metabolic conditioning while objectively measuring progress.

It is worth noting that different conditioning methods fall across the intensity spectrum from low to high, depending on the overall load on the body. More volume is generally needed to achieve training adaptations and improve conditioning when intensity is lower.

While there are various methods of metabolic conditioning, discussing and analyzing each one is beyond the scope of this article. This article is all about understanding the role of HIIT training as a non-specific conditioning method in-season.

HIIT Training: What? Why? How?

Before I begin writing this section, I want to highlight the book Science and Application of High-Intensity Interval Training. This book is an invaluable resource, and much of the information presented in the following paragraphs is derived from it.

HIIT variables can all be manipulated to modify the physiological load (aerobic, anaerobic, neuromuscular), says Konstantinos Stratakis. Share on X

All the chapters in this magnificent book are genuinely outstanding. That being said, I loved chapters 3-5 the most. The authors do an excellent job describing in detail the physiological targets of HIIT, explaining the HIIT variables and ways to manipulate them according to the desired outcome while smoothly transitioning to the actual utilization of the different HIIT formats.

Now that we’ve addressed that, let’s begin: HIIT training is defined as the repeated performance of relatively short intervals of high-intensity work interspersed with low-intensity work or rest intervals, where full recovery is usually not allowed. HIIT has gained popularity due to its ability to positively impact both the aerobic and anaerobic systems while inducing neuromuscular adaptations in a time-efficient manner.

Nine HIIT variables, including work intensity, work duration, recovery interval intensity, recovery interval duration, exercise modality, number of intervals, number of series, between-series recovery duration, and between-series recovery intensity, can all be manipulated to modify the physiological load (aerobic, anaerobic, neuromuscular).

In HIIT, there are two types of load intensity indicators: external and internal. External intensity load indicators include running speed at VO2max (vVO2max or MAS), maximum sprinting speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR = MSS – MAS), and VIFT (achieved speed in the intermittent fitness test 30-15) for running and power output at VO2max (PVO2max) and maximum power output (Pmax) for rowing and bicycle-ergometer. On the other hand, the most commonly used internal intensity load indicators in the practical field include heart rate (% of HRmax), level of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate accumulation.

According to the authors of the book Science and Application of High-Intensity Interval Training  there are four HIIT formats:

1. HIIT Long

Work intensity:

• 90-105% vVO2max (MAS)

Work duration:

• 1-2 min to a maximum of 5-6 min

Relief interval duration and intensity:

• Shorter passive
• Longer active, but with a lower load intensity (40-50% vVO2max)

Example:

• (5-8 x 3 min [95% MAS], r= 4-5 min [50% vVO2max] or r= 2-3 min passive)

2. HIIT Short

Work intensity:

• 100-130% vVO2max (MAS)

Work duration:

• 15-60 sec

Relief interval duration and intensity:

• Passive for higher work/rest ratios and work intensities
• Active (50-60% vVO2max) for lower work/rest ratios and work intensities

Example:

• 2-3x (8 x 30 sec [110% vVO2max], r= 30 sec [50% vVO2max] or r= 15 sec passive)

Video 1. A player performing a repetition of HIIT repeated sprint interval..

3. Repeated Sprint Training

Work intensity:

• Maximum (85-100% of MSS)

Work duration:

• 3-8 sec

Relief interval duration and intensity:

• 3-5 times more than work duration passive
• 5-8 times more than work duration active (50-60% vVO2max)

Example:

• 2-4 x (6-10 x 3-6 sec max, r= 15-20 sec passive or r= 20-30 sec active)

Video 2. A player performing a repetition of HIIT short interval.

4. Sprint Interval Training

Work intensity:

• Maximum

Work duration:

• 15-45 sec

Relief interval duration and intensity:

• 2-4 min, passive

Example:

• 1 x (4-8 x 20-40 sec max, r= 2-4 min passive)

When using different HIIT formats, it’s essential to consider the specificity continuum of exercise modalities. More specific exercise modalities, such as patterned running, are great for simulating the demands of the sport. In contrast, more general modalities, like biking, are better for inducing central adaptations without overloading specific structures. In my practice, particularly during the in-season, I typically use specific exercise methods most of the time. However, there are certain situations where I might use more general exercise methods, such as during long HIIT sessions or when I want to reduce strain on the neuromuscular system. I will delve into this further in later sections of this article.

Training time above 90% of VO2max has been established as a good criterion for judging the effectiveness of a training program to improve aerobic fitness, says Konstantinos Stratakis. Share on X

The videos above provide examples of exercise modalities specific to basketball. In the first clip, the player performs a repetition of a HIIT short interval. In the second clip, the player does a repeated sprint interval. It is important to note that the player’s skill level should not be a limiting factor. Therefore, familiar movement patterns are preferred.

HIIT Training and Aerobic, Anaerobic, and Neuromuscular Contribution

The various HIIT formats uniquely affect the aerobic, anaerobic, and neuromuscular systems. As mentioned earlier in this article, adjusting the nine different HIIT variables allows for modifying the overall physiological load.

1. HIIT Training and Aerobic Contribution

An increase in VO2 max positively relates to training intensity in the 50-100% VO2max range. Several reviews have supported the superior efficacy of training at near VO2max. More precisely, training time above 90% of VO2max has been established as a good criterion for judging the effectiveness of a training program to improve aerobic fitness.

Both HIIT short and long seem to be very effective training methods for accumulating time above 90% of VO2max. When it comes to repeated sprint intervals, 4 seconds of work, including jumps and COD, and 20 seconds of active rest is going to maximize time above 90% of VO2max, even if this training method is not optimal for this purpose. Even if there is a high demand for muscle oxygenation, sprint interval training hardly maximizes time above 90% of VO2max. That said, the higher the session volume, the more the aerobic system contributes to energy production.

2. HIIT Training and Anaerobic Contribution

Occasionally, coaches prefer to limit the anaerobic contribution of specific HIIT sessions to lower the overall RPE or avoid depletion of glycogen stores while accumulating higher volumes of near VO2max training.

The use of blood lactate concentration to assess anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution has several limitations (nutritional status, aerobic fitness, timing, etc.). However, it is still the most reliable method for assessing anaerobic contribution during HIIT.

Long HIIT intervals are less flexible overall. Higher work intensities, longer work interval durations, and shorter rest intervals are all closely related to a higher rate of blood lactate increase. When the rest interval duration is more prolonged, active recovery can accelerate blood lactate clearance.

Short intervals, on the other hand, are generally more flexible. Short HIIT sessions with similar mean intensity but higher work interval intensities elicit more significant blood lactate responses. Increases in the work/rest ratio and work interval durations are associated with increases in the initial rate of blood lactate accumulation. With increased recovery intensities, a progressive increase in blood lactate is observed at exhaustion.

The initial rate of blood lactate accumulation during repeated sprint intervals is primarily correlated with its work/rest ratio. Sprints longer than 4 seconds and relief intervals less than 20 seconds and active elicit more blood lactate accumulation. Greater COD angles may increase muscle recruitment, but absolute sprinting speed is lower, which results in less lactate accumulation.

Regarding sprint interval training, shorter sprints and/or lower intensities will lower the anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution. That said, more than 45-second sprints engage a more significant contribution from the aerobic system. For more lactate production, recovery periods should be long enough to allow the aerobic system to return to its resting levels while avoiding over-acidic status.

3. HIIT Training and Neuromuscular Contribution

Managing neuromuscular load during HIIT training is essential because it:

1. Affects time at VO2max.
2. Might have potential carry-over effects for subsequent training sessions.
3. Might modulate long-term neuromuscular adaptations.
4. May influence injury risk (traumatic and overuse).

While the majority of muscle fibers might already be recruited during long intervals, the firing rate and relative force development per fiber are likely greater during short intervals. Long and short intervals with more anaerobic contribution might equal more fatigue. For “bigger” athletes, the musculoskeletal load of long intervals might be higher than during short intervals due to poor running economy. Incline running and softer surfaces seem to reduce neuromuscular strain during both HIIT short and long intervals.

A lower work/relief ratio is generally associated with a more significant impairment of repeated sprinting capacity during sprint interval training. However, maintaining a higher running speed may induce a greater musculoskeletal strain. 45° COD may be an effective alternative to reducing acute neuromuscular load during RSS, with an even sharper COD being associated with a higher acute risk of both ankle and knee injuries. The high volume of decelerations has the potential to increase acute muscle fatigue.

When it comes to sprint interval training, longer rest durations show greater impairments in neuromuscular performance because they allow for max-effort bouts. Longer sprint intervals (up to 72 seconds) might have more neuromuscular demands than shorter intervals (15 seconds or 30 seconds).

The use of blood lactate concentration to assess anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution has several limitations... However, it is still the most reliable method for assessing anaerobic contribution during HIIT. Share on X

As a closer to this section, I want to mention that even if quantifying the exact physiological load of HIIT may be challenging, following the tips and tricks from the authors of Science and Application of High-Intensity Interval Training is an easy and effective way to achieve the desired results. However, due to the chaotic environment of team sports, it can be challenging to prescribe HIIT based on predetermined numbers such as ASR or MAS. Personally, I regularly use subjective (RPE) and objective (heart rate, accelerometer) measures of internal and external load to get an idea of what I get out of my HIIT sessions.

Incorporating HIIT Training as a Non-Specific Conditioning Method In-Season

I can’t hide that I am a big fan of Daniel Bove’s book The Quadrant System. This book has defined my training system. Considering this, in my system, additional non-specific conditioning always accompanies the nature of the stress related to the volume and intensity of sports practices and games. As mentioned in the book, this way, physical preparation and sport-specific training are coordinated in tandem, creating a congruent perception of stress and helping to avoid flatlining.

For example, game days are accompanied by conditioning protocols such as HIIT short protocols, which place high stress on the aerobic, anaerobic, and neuromuscular systems. The overall volume of the conditioning sessions depends on various factors, including the acute/chronic load, the psychophysiological status and age of players, the availability of resources, etc.

Generally, high-minute players do not undergo extra conditioning unless there is an overreaching phase. However, moderate and low/no-minute players have additional conditioning sessions, with the overall session volume varying based on the need analysis process, as already mentioned.

Regarding sports practices, higher-intensity, lower-volume practices are usually combined with conditioning protocols that place high stress on the neuromuscular and anaerobic systems and moderate/low stress on the aerobic system. This can include repeated sprint intervals or HIIT short with lower density but higher outputs.

Lower intensity, higher volume sports practices, on the other hand, are most often paired with tempo intervals or even LISS training. Hopefully, another article will provide more information on these protocols.

The most challenging practices of the week, which involve both high volume and high intensity, are more commonly paired with HIIT short or, less often, HIIT long intervals, thereby stressing all systems (aerobic, anaerobic, neuromuscular). Rarely, I might program very low-volume sprint interval training to challenge athletes mentally and physically.

Overall, non-specific conditioning should support and complement specific training, or in other words, the sport itself. Too much allostatic load at the wrong time can be detrimental to both performance and development. Thus, it is crucial to intelligently combine HIIT training with the sport’s stressors while adjusting its overall volume according to each athlete’s status.

More precisely, the likely acute neuromuscular impact of different training formats may play a critical role in the neuromuscular adaptations and interferences that develop from supplementary training and match content.

In addition to looking at the neuromuscular load as a general term, it’s important to consider the specific effects of HIIT on different muscle groups. For example, when organizing a tactical session that involves a lot of high-speed running (HSR), it’s advisable to avoid putting too much strain on the hamstrings. However, if the aim is to specifically work those muscle groups, for example to prepare for the high demands of a match, a HIIT sequence focused on high-speed running could be included in the program.

This year, I have the opportunity to work with Firstbeat technology. Firstbeat provides me with insights into the players’ external factors (such as movement load) and internal load (like TRIMP) in real-time. This enables me to make well-informed decisions about programming additional non-specific conditioning, including HIIT. Firstbeat also provides me with real-time feedback on the aerobic and anaerobic demands during sports practices and non-specific conditioning sessions, allowing me to adjust HIIT variables (Figure 2).

A Thing to Consider When Programming HIIT

One aspect that has not been given much attention is that, for most high-intensity interval training options, the average movement intensity (movement load per minute, density) tends to be much higher than the peak match demands for similar durations.

For example, certain HIIT short protocols enable athletes to cover the same high-speed running (HSR) distance as a 90-minute match in less than 15 minutes. This principle applies to other vital metrics in different sports, such as high-intensity accelerations/decelerations in basketball and high-intensity jumps in volleyball.

This means that HIIT can easily overwhelm the average movement intensity for a given metric during a match. The question is: “How much does this matter regarding fitness development, match preparation, and injury management?”

It might be reasonable to assume that such extreme overload is unnecessary and should be avoided. Breaking the HIIT sequences into smaller effort sequences, followed by rest periods, may reduce the average movement intensity of a certain metric closer to the actual game demands.

HIIT can easily overwhelm the average movement intensity for a given metric during a match. The question is: How much does this matter regarding fitness development, match preparation, and injury management? Share on X

However, this may not be sufficient to enable the desired adaptations in cardiorespiratory response. Coaches may need to decide whether to prioritize metabolic conditioning (longer HIIT sets) or match-specific average movement intensity for a given metric (shorter HIIT sets) to achieve the desired outcomes.

In my practice, I often mix different movement patterns within the same HIIT block. For example, I alternate linear runs with multidirectional movements or jumps. This approach can help decrease the volume and average movement intensity of high-speed running (HSR), allowing players to exercise for longer periods without accumulating high volumes of a specific metric, which could lead to a sudden increase in workload.

Final Thoughts

In a perfect world, all conditioning should be completed by playing and practicing the sport. Even if it’s challenging to replicate the physical and emotional stress produced by the sport itself, there are times when non-specific metabolic conditioning is necessary.

HIIT is a powerful and highly flexible weapon for non-specific conditioning in-season. The manipulation of the different HIIT variables allows coaches to adjust the physiological load. In my system, additional non-specific conditioning always accompanies the nature of the stress related to the volume and intensity of sports practices and games. When utilizing HIIT, considering the density might be worthwhile.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF