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What do faster stride frequency and more powerful foot strikes in sprinting have to do with relaxation? It turns out, a lot.

Excess muscle tension is a barrier to optimal performance. In Relax and Win (1981), Bud Winter describes his involvement in a Navy research project to determine why aviators froze under stress. Besides helping our military preserve “Truth, Justice, and the American Way,” Winter would later apply his relaxation techniques to 27 Olympians, three of whom won Olympic gold.

(lead photo courtesy of Washington State Athletics)

Winter believed that athletes should not expend more than 90% effort when they sprinted. He said the additional 10% effort caused unnecessary muscles to fire, slowing them down. An analogy would be trying to drive a car by stepping on the gas and the brake at the same time.

Winter said that coaches should give their athletes cues to relax their jaw, forehead, and hands to avoid excess tension during sprinting. Among his commands were “Run fast, stay loose,” “Get the wrinkles out of your forehead,” and “Drop those shoulders.”

One example of the power of relaxation was Usain Bolt’s splits in the finals of the 2008 Olympics and 2009 World Championships, as follows:

At 70 meters in Beijing, Bolt opened his arms and started pounding his chest in celebration. However, by keeping his upper body relaxed, he maintained splits of .82 and .83 during the next 20 meters and broke the world record with 9.69 seconds. In 2009, he skipped the in-race celebration but ran identical 70m and 80m splits to run 9.58, a world record that still stands.

Gabriel Mvumvure embraced this concept of managing tension during sprinting. Mvumvure competed in the 2016 Olympics in the 100m, representing Zimbabwe. He coached at LSU, Brown, and now at Washington State. Expanding on Winter’s ideas, Mvumvure said sprinters can overstride or become unstable if they expend 100% effort, factors that not only slow them down but increase their risk of injury. These are common faults with high school sprinters trying to achieve the fastest times to impress college scouts.

Mvumvure says he must spend considerable time teaching incoming freshmen how to avoid “tightening up” during a race. He works with them on meditation techniques to help them deal with stress, emphasizes the importance of getting a good night’s sleep, and teaches them how to avoid the “adrenaline dump” that causes so many young sprinters to freeze just before a race. (By the way, in his first year at Washington State, Mvumvure’s sprinters and hurdlers broke 108 personal bests. This year, his athletes broke six school records in the indoor season.)

Relaxation is essential to minimize deceleration during a race and transition from maximum acceleration into maximum velocity. Although Winter’s clues are valuable, many track drills can help an athlete learn how to achieve a balance between maximum force production and a high level of relaxation. Let’s look at three of these drills taught by Coach Mvumvure.

Relaxation is essential to minimize deceleration during a race and transition from maximum acceleration into maximum velocity. Share on X

The Right Track to Relax

Mvumvure’s on-track approach to maximum velocity contains three progressive drills (see video 1 below). His athletes perform multiple reps in each drill, mastering the first and then the second before finishing with the third. Each drill involves a drive phase, a transition phase, and a maximum velocity phase.

Relaxation Drill #1

The first sequence has the athlete starting with a longer-than-normal stride length. For every segment after that, they must increase their frequency but shorten their stride. “The more frequency they add, the less I want them to strain,” says Mvumvure.

Relaxation Drill #2

The second sequence is the opposite of the first in terms of stride length. “The athlete starts with a shorter-than-normal stride, which calls for even more frequency because the stride is short,” says Mvumvure. “However, with every rep, they have to open their stride more without changing the frequency they started with.”

Relaxation Drill #3

The final sequence combines the skills practiced in the first two drills: The drive phase stride is long but not too long, and the stride frequency is high. “This sequence provides continuity in acceleration but not to the point where we are just spinning our wheels,” says Mvumvure. “As they enter the transition and maximum velocity phases, the stride length increases while frequency decreases.”

Mvumvure says he often likes to perform these sequences under load, having them wear 7–10-pound vests called speed builders. “Using equipment like the 1080 Motion is also good, but we don’t have the budget. Sleds would be a good improvisational tool if their weight is less than 10% of the athlete’s body weight.”

Video 1. A workout performed by Washington State athletes that includes three drills to teach them to avoid excess tension as they sprint.

Now, let’s look at what to do—and what not to do—in the weight room.

Understanding the Iron Game

The first step to developing an optimal weight training program for sprinting and other high-velocity sports is avoiding methods that create unnatural movement patterns. The Russians were pioneers in this field, conducting extensive research on the role of relaxation in sports techniques over a half-century ago. One of the key researchers in this field was Leonid P. Matveyev, a sports scientist often referenced in strength coaching papers and textbooks for his work on periodization.

The first step to developing an optimal weight training program for sprinting and other high-velocity sports is avoiding methods that create unnatural movement patterns. Share on X

Matveyev said the ability to relax muscles quickly, particularly after a maximal contraction, is a crucial indicator of movement efficiency. It follows that athletes in high-velocity sports should avoid focusing solely on exercises performed relatively slowly and that do not require the muscles to relax quickly, such as deadlifts or bench presses. Here are the three iron game sports that have minimal value to sprinters:

• Strongman
• Powerlifting
• Bodybuilding

These sports produce a high degree of mechanical tension over a prolonged period. Strongman and powerlifting use the heaviest weights for relatively low reps (often 3–5 reps). Further, they create considerable internal tension to provide stability for performing the three competition power lifts and the strongman events, such as lifting heavy Atlas stones.

The issue here is that lifting the heaviest weights and objects in strongman requires relatively slow movements, as there is an inverse relationship between mechanical tension and velocity. Such training also changes how tendons function.

According to a 2013 study in the European Journal of Applied Physiology on the squat, the tendons “act as a power amplifier at light loads and a more rigid force transducer at heavy loads.” As this relates to sprinting, a rigid tendon would not perform like a powerful spring to assist with force production in increasing stride length. Further, Russian sports scientist A. I. Falameyev said that workouts using this type of muscle contraction can negatively influence joint mobility and the elasticity of the muscles and tendons. This has implications from an injury perspective.

If the majority of your training is devoted to slow movements that make the tendons rigid, it follows that this would be the dominant response in other athletic movements. If an athlete makes a sharp cut on the basketball court or gridiron, and the tendons of the lower extremities don’t flex, something will probably tear. As evidence, consider that approximately 70% of knee and ankle injuries are non-contact.

The Bodybuilding Problem

While the training methods of powerlifters and strongmen apparently may have little transfer to sprinting, bodybuilding methods are worse.

Let’s start by distinguishing the two types of hypertrophy: myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic. Myofibrillar hypertrophy primarily increases the size of muscle fibers. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy also involves the development of components that add size to the muscle but do not contribute to force production (see image 5 below).

In a 2002 paper, Russian sports scientist Igor Abramovsky warned that weightlifters must be careful about increasing their body weight because it “…creates additional loading on the sportsman’s muscles because the weightlifter has to lift this excess weight during the execution of the weightlifting exercises; second, the sportsman’s speed deteriorates.” Sprinters must consider the stress the extra body weight puts on the cardiovascular system, which becomes a significant issue in distances over 100 meters. There’s more.

Training methods that develop myofibrillar hypertrophy usually develop the powerful fast-twitch muscle fibers, whereas sarcoplasmic hypertrophy primarily works the weaker slow-twitch muscle fibers. Power production is further inhibited because such training affects the ability of the muscles to contract rapidly.

A study published in Experimental Physiology in 2015 concluded that bodybuilding methods affected the ability of the athlete to create maximal muscle tension. The researchers said that compared to power athletes (such as weightlifters and sprinters), bodybuilding training may be “detrimental to increasing muscle fiber quality.”

Finally, hypertrophy affects the pennation angle of the muscles, which refers to how the contractile components of muscle fibers are organized. Hypertrophy changes the pennation angle of the fibers in relation to the tendons they are attached to, making them less efficient at producing force.

The takeaway is that bodybuilding protocols focusing on sarcoplasmic hypertrophy should be avoided if sprinting speed is a priority. But that doesn’t mean using ultralight weights on bodybuilding exercises or partial-range movements.

Not to single out anyone, but I’ve seen many published workouts by sprint coaches who attempt to avoid bulking up their athletes by using light weights for high reps. In one published workout designed for high school sprinters, the highest percentage for cleans was 50%–60% of the one-repetition maximum, so about half of the athlete’s maximum result. He increased the percentages to 70%–80% for squats. For college sprinters, he increased the clean percentage to 70% and the squat to 85%, although the reps stayed the same.

Although using light weights may avoid developing significant levels of muscle bulk, they do not create enough mechanical tension to increase an athlete’s ability to produce force significantly. Share on X

Although using light weights may avoid developing significant levels of muscle bulk, they do not create enough mechanical tension to increase an athlete’s ability to produce force significantly. For example, in looking at weightlifting workouts published in their journals, the Russians often did not list sets of under 70% of an athlete’s maximum. Why? Because these percentages did not generate enough muscle tension to stimulate increases in strength or power—they were considered warm-ups.

This is not to say that weight training protocols designed to develop absolute strength or hypertrophy should never be performed but that they should not comprise the majority of time spent in strength and conditioning programs. With that warning, what are the alternatives? Let’s take a look.

The Pulsating Athlete

Stuart McGill described sprinters and competitive weightlifters as “pulse” athletes, meaning their muscles contract quickly and then relax completely in a pulsating fashion. Weightlifting sports scientist Bud Charniga would agree.

“The weightlifter’s muscles rapidly alternate muscle tension (agonists) with muscle relaxation (antagonists),” says Charniga. “A state of constant tension/relaxation during the classic exercises is punctuated by very fast switching between extensor muscles such as quadriceps, and flexors (hamstrings, anterior tibialis) from maximum tension to maximum relaxation.”

Note that Charniga said the “classic exercises,” which are the snatch and the clean and jerk, work the muscles through a large range of motion, in contrast to the powerlifts. He did not say hang power cleans, and he has been an outspoken critic of these and other so-called “weightlifting derivatives.” Charniga says these exercises do not match the tension/relaxation patterns of the full lifts.

Of course, many college strength coaches do not know how to teach the full lifts. If they are serious about learning them, they should consider getting together with a weightlifting coach who can at least teach them to perform a full clean. In the meantime, or as an alternative, they could have their athletes perform many relatively simple dynamic jump exercises in the weight room that follow the contraction/relaxation patterns in sprinting. Video 2 shows two examples of such exercises.

Video 2. The assisted squat jump and the barbell squat jump follow the contraction/relaxation patterns used in high-velocity activities such as sprinting.

Many strength coaches use bands that prolong the concentric contraction of lifts, such as the squat, deadlift, or bench press. This is not a good idea. This contraction/relaxation pattern is different from what occurs in sprinting. “An analogy would be running only uphill, where the force remains constant,” says strength coach and posturologist Paul Gagné.

Along with the classical weightlifting exercises and squat jumps, a better alternative would be isoinertial training using flywheel devices. “Iso-inertial training more closely matches human movement patterns in dynamic sports,” says Gagné. “It also provides fast eccentric overload. An analogy would be running on a level surface and transitioning into running downhill, then repeating the sequence to create a cyclic effect.”

Not having the strength to control eccentric movements in sports is believed to increase an athlete’s risk of injury, as evidenced by the statistic I mentioned earlier that an estimated 70% of knee and ankle injuries are non-contact. Because women are at a much greater risk of developing knee injuries than men, it follows they should make fast eccentric training a priority. Flywheel training is ideal for eccentric overload because the harder you push or pull, the more eccentric overload is produced.

A word about kettlebells. Kettlebell swings involve dynamic movements that improve the timing between rapid eccentric and concentric muscular contractions, so that’s good. However, providing overload with stronger athletes is challenging (and few gyms have heavier pods), so they should be reserved for warm-ups in most cases.

Sprinters and other athletes in high-velocity dynamic sports should use training methods that focus on providing powerful muscular bursts followed by prolonged relaxation. Share on X

The bottom line is that sprinters and other athletes in high-velocity dynamic sports should rarely use methods that primarily develop maximum strength or muscle bulk, like those used by bodybuilders or powerlifters. Instead, they should use training methods that focus on providing powerful muscular bursts followed by prolonged relaxation. As Bud Winter would say, “Relax and win!”

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Winter, Bud. Relax and Win. Oak Tree Publications, 1981.

Lee, Jimson. “Usain Bolt 10 Meter Splits, Fastest Top Speed, 2008 vs. 2009.” SpeedEndurance.com. August 19, 2009.

Charniga, Andrew, Jr. “The Secret to the Weightlifter’s Strength: Speed of Muscle Relaxation.” Sportivnypress.com. January 30, 2023.

Earp JE, Newton RU, Cormie P, and Blazevich AJ. “The influence of loading intensity on muscle-tendon unit behavior during maximal knee extensor stretch shortening cycle exercise.” European Journal of Applied Physiology. October 2013.

Earp JE, Newton RU, Cormie P, and Blazevich AJ. “Faster Movement Speed Results in Greater Tendon Strain during the Loaded Squat Exercise.” Frontiers in Physiology. August 20, 2016.

Charniga, Andrew, Jr. “Achilles Tendon Ruptures and the NFL.” Sportivnypress.com. February 9, 2017.

Gagné P and Goss, K. Get Stronger, Not Bigger. 2021:113–117.

Abramovsky, Igor. “A Weightlifter’s Excess Bodyweight and Sport Results.” Sportivnypress.com, Bud Charniga Translation: May 2, 2014 (Originally published in 2002).

Meijer JP, Jaspers RT, Rittweger J, Seynnes OR, Kamandulis S, Brazaitis M, et al. “Single muscle fibre contractile properties differ between body-builders, power athletes and control subjects.” Experimental Physiology. November 2015;100(11):1331–41.

McGill, Stuart. “An Approach to Pain-Free Training for Track Athletes with Stuart McGill.” SimpliFaster. December 2023.

Lyons, Todd. Personal communication, March 13, 2024.

Boden BP, Dean GS, Feagin JA Jr, and Garrett WE Jr. “Mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament injury.” Orthopedics. June 2000;23(6):573–578.

Let me set the stage for you: A 6-foot, 200-pound Division I athlete walks into the gym. Their body is chiseled from granite, like Michelangelo’s David. They exude confidence as they walk across the turf to introduce themselves to you with a soul-crushing handshake. And then this elite athlete—we’ll say they’re an ice hockey player—gets to their speed work and sprints 15 yards. To your disbelief, their elbows are askew, their knee drive is minimal, and their pelvis is tilted so far anterior it’s as if they’re defying gravity to just stay on their feet.

In other words, this future NHL draft pick’s sprint technique is a hot mess. However, while their technique isn’t strong, they are an explosive, powerful athlete. You don’t want to interfere with their skate stride, but a few easy cues can clear up some of their technical deficiencies in sprinting. As their strength and conditioning coach, you can now take two approaches:

1. Drill their sprint work to perfection.
2. Embrace the mindset of Wabi Sabi.

Per Adam Grant’s book Hidden Potentials, Wabi Sabi is the “art of honoring the beauty in imperfection” (p. 69). However, as strength and conditioning coaches, we far too often focus on getting every lift or sprint exactly right, seeking perfection at the cost of the athlete’s confidence or moving on to other aspects of developing them as a holistic athlete.

There is a law of diminishing returns where coaches can over-coach an athlete out of their natural flow state, thus hindering their performance and development along the way, says @CoachDottavio. Share on X

I do believe in the A-B-C phrase “always be coaching,” but there is a law of diminishing returns where coaches can over-coach an athlete out of their natural flow state, thus hindering their performance and development along the way.

Wabi Sabi vs. Perfection in Team Sports

If coaches chase perfection, we eliminate the Patrick Mahomeses of the world. Looking for perfection over Wabi Sabi is a major flaw in both scouting and coaching. “Mahomes Magic” is fueled by the funny way the Super Bowl MVP trots around the field between plays and the off-platform throws he has become so famous for—far from perfection, but dang, he’s good!

In baseball, some of the game’s best players have done things differently. Mariano Rivera abandoned the full wind-up for the exclusive use of the stretch. Tim Wakefield hung around baseball for 19 major league seasons, relying on his unpredictable knuckleball. And Gary Sheffield’s iconic “bat wave” was one of a kind at the plate.

Yet, when it comes to speed training, many team sport and S&C coaches feel the need to cram every athlete into a 100-meter sprinter’s box. A famous Wabi Sabi phrase is “perfectly acceptable,” and the sprint techniques of team sport athletes are perfectly fine to fall into that category.

Soccer players like Lauryn (above) need max velocity sprinting in their programming, but does their sprint technique need total refining, or should they take a Wabi Sabi approach of making small changes until they’re good enough? Some easy changes I typically refine with her are staying loose as opposed to neck tight and keeping her hands like knives instead of fists. That’s the balance between detailed coaching and perfectionism.

When is a team sport athlete’s sprinting form good enough? Per Hidden Potentials, perfectionists get it wrong in three areas:

• They obsess over moot details.
• They avoid unfamiliar and difficult tasks.
• They berate themselves over mistakes.

Our perfectionists don’t master problem-solving, they don’t embrace discomfort, and they can’t hang loose.

In the article “Optimal Strategies for Improving Football Speed,” Dr. Matt Rhea said, “Field sport movement mechanics are very different from track sprint mechanics.” Think about it: the start is different, and then the need for deceleration and change of direction, the impact of visual stimuli and reaction, and the presence of decision-making and contact are key parts of sport that aren’t parts of the 100-meter dash.

At EB Athletics, our intake assessment for new clients includes a 10-yard fly with a 5-yard lead. Not only do we time their mini fly 10 on a Freelap Timing System, but I evaluate and make notes about their sprint technique. If there are drastic flaws, yes, we’ll work to improve in those areas. But I’m not going to attempt to turn a team sport athlete into a perfect Olympic-level 100-meter sprinter or even 400-meter sprinter.

There are a few key points I look for in a non-track sprint that were taught to me by speed coach Dale Baskett (Athletic Speed and Movement): starting stance (gait, posture), arm angles, eyes, and hands. As coaches, we can use one-word cues to address each: “Gait,” “L’s,” “Knives,” and “Eyes.” With another Wabi Sabi mindset being “less is more,” those one-word coaching points elicit an immediate correction from the athlete without overloading them with too many corrections or too many words.

Most of our younger athletes first need to focus on increasing their strength while improving their coordination. With improved strength and coordination and a dose of sprint “drills,” we will see improved form. Athletes brand-new to training see the most immediate gains and are typically more open to trying new things because everything about the S&C experience is new.

One Step Back to Take Two Steps Forward

One area of concern for many experienced athletes is that they have to accept potentially getting slower before they get faster. If you’ve ever switched from the hunt-and-peck method of typing to the touch-typing method, your typing speed slowed down at first. However, your ceiling was far higher once you learned to touch type.

Sprinting, much like learning any new skill, works the same way. As Dr. Art Markman said in his piece “People Can Learn to Appreciate the Discomfort of Learning” for Psychology Today, “Just because something feels uncomfortable, though, doesn’t mean that it is bad for you.”

As you can see in the “comfort zone” image above, athletes must push from comfort to fear to learning before they can grow. To become better at their sport, the athlete will have to push away from using their standard, anxiety-free skills to use a new set of skills that are still in the learning process.

In her appearance on the Coachspeak podcast (Season 1, Episode 9), soccer strength and conditioning coach Erica Suter said, “You can’t get confident if you’re not challenged. If everything were easy, would you get better at all?” Suter also identifies the need to play multiple sports and have time for free play in order to build confidence as an athlete at an early training age.

For an athlete learning a new skill or technique not to feel defeated, Wabi Sabi can serve as a great mental approach to growth. An athlete expecting perfection on their first sprint using a new technique would be setting too unreasonable of a standard. Standards and goals should be set appropriately with the right difficulty but not entirely out of reach. Expecting that sprint to be perfectly acceptable rather than perfect will push the athlete from comfort into growth.

Wabi Sabi embraces natural flaws without trying to create them purposely, so when you expect a sprint to be perfectly acceptable rather than perfect, it pushes an athlete from comfort into growth. Share on X

As a coach, it’s okay to fix one thing at a time. Just like when people need to quit smoking or change their eating habits, a wholesale diet switch—or going cold turkey—is an option that works for very few people. That’s why the Wabi Sabi approach to sprint technique is a good option: Wabi Sabi stays neutral rather than risking being overly positive (“You will get faster!”) or potentially devastated (“But I should be perfect at this NOW!”).

Wabi Sabi embraces natural flaws without trying to create them purposely. In a society that focuses far too much on perfect social media filter appearances, Wabi Sabi embraces our beautiful imperfections as humans. That blemish, scar, or tight curl is part of our beautiful imperfection. The same goes for sprint technique with team sport athletes. That slight hand turn or head bob is okay as long as it won’t injure the athlete.

Let’s consider the difference between a track sprinter’s arm angles and action and a soccer player’s. A soccer player opens and closes their arm angles less and more rarely achieves an ideal upright sprint technique because they constantly need to decelerate and change direction. Of course, we won’t program sloppily or allow a sprinting technique that will clearly lead to injury. We work slowly and methodically to correct while keeping the athlete engaged and our mindsets in neutral.

The Freelap Timing System combined with the approach that track and field coach Tony Holler promotes—“Record, Rank, Publish”—are the methods I use at our private training facility, EB Athletics (located in Raleigh, North Carolina).

However, one of our favorite metrics is based on growth. While we do keep a leaderboard of our top fly 10 scores, we also keep a growth leaderboard (see above). In the book Hidden Potentials (referenced earlier), Dr. Grant also discusses the need to calculate the rate of improvement over time. In other words, the growth the athlete has seen over time in your training program.

Tracking data is a great way to sell memberships to your gym, no doubt. But it’s even more of a great way to keep athletes pushing forward through the dog days of the off-season and into their school or travel seasons. Pushing against their old self to create a new standard while overcoming the discomfort of growth is a truly intrinsic reward. I may not be the best, but I’m the best me that I’ve ever been, and that’s what really matters for most people!

As coaches, we have to facilitate that desire. The Wabi Sabi approach will help our athletes hang loose, play in a flow state, and accept being perfectly imperfect. Besides, what is success worth if we never get to enjoy it?

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Dottavio, Justin, host. “Erica Suter.” Coachspeak podcast, 2/29/24.

Grant, Adam. Hidden Potential: The Science of Achieving Greater Things. Viking, 2023.

Markman, Art, “People Can Learn to Appreciate the Discomfort of Learning,” Psychology Today, 11/29/22.

Moawad, Trevor. It Takes What It Takes: How to Think Neutrally and Gain Control of Your Life. HarperOne, 2020.

Rhea, Matt, “Optimal strategies for improving football speed,” LinkedIn, 2/23/24.

Small-sided games may be the best training modality a team can progress into during the off-season. Coaches train specific athletic biomotor abilities in the hope of transfer to the sport, and most coaches are on the right path but don’t deliver the athletes to the final destination because of the lack of open agility drills in the build-up to the competitive season.

Speed and power training are popular subjects among the strength and conditioning crowds, and rightly so. Having general abilities, such as linear speed and power capabilities, will definitely give athletes a leg up over those with lesser abilities. The difference between elite players and average players is that elite players maximize the expression of their athletic abilities in game play.

Video 1. Reacting fast on the competitive field involves more than just physical attributes, and athletes become increasingly comfortable with specific situations that can be injected into the training process through small-sided games.

Having fast fly 10s and sky-high vertical jumps won’t help unless the athletes can process the environment and provide the proper movement based on their opponent’s cues. The abilities necessary to have fast game speed are trainable. In the first article of this four-part series, we spoke about the four main athletic contributors to increasing game speed:

1. Acceleration
2. Deceleration
3. Max speed
4. Change of direction

Combining these general attributes with open agility training in the form of small-sided games will better prepare the athlete to increase real performance in the place it matters most: the game.

Skill development is not complex; it takes focused reps and time. Once athletes more quickly execute the attributes that increase skill, they need to be allowed to self-discover and fail in a controlled environment before increasing the accuracy of skill execution in actual gameplay. Increases in strength, speed, and power alter the timing and rhythm of movement. There is a period of figuring out the new changes the athlete has achieved.

Small-sided games provide the appropriate space and environment to develop desirable skills that reduce gameplay-induced, non-contact injuries and hone advanced athletic abilities, says CoachJoeyG. Share on X

Small-sided games provide the appropriate space and environment to develop desirable skills that reduce gameplay-induced, non-contact injuries and hone advanced athletic abilities. Skills allow athletic traits such as speed, power, and strength to be exhibited in play, but skills need practice and environments that are close to gameplay. You don’t win games by having the strongest team; you win games by having the most skilled team.

We have covered a lot of ground on this subject with the why, the how, and the what as it pertains to adding small-sided games to off-season training. The one subject I have neglected to cover so far is the when. The when to include small-sided games is what brings this whole thing home. Training compatibility is a phrase that first came to my attention at a clinic where Boo Schexnayder was lecturing.

Managing the training process in a way that progresses toward specificity while maintaining and building general qualities is an imperfect science. It is an art that necessitates mastery and comprehension of your own training program and an unbelievable understanding of your athletes’ current states. It is ever-changing and extremely fluid. Determining when to add intensity, when to bring down volume, and when to change exercises or drills takes absolute comprehension of the training that is occurring and a great feel for the current state of your athletes.

Training processes need to feed off one another in a constant build toward the final “state,” where strength and conditioning coaches feel their athletes are the most prepared for the demands of play and the rigors of the season. Days must work together, and weeks must build off one another with increased performance in mind the entire way. The training year needs to build from general to specific and simple to complex—many great coaches have the foresight and wisdom to schedule training in a way that maximizes performance and minimizes training interference.

Video 2. Small-Sided games.

During the following sections of this article, we will go through three parts of integrating small-sided games into training that will promote training compatibility:

1. The training year
2. The mesocycle
3. The microcycle

Training Year

Planning a full 12 months out can be a daunting task that engulfs coaches as they try to organize every detail for the training year. In my opinion, when creating the yearly plan, coaches should hit broad strokes—be less about details and more about block themes. Taking a 40,000-foot view will allow the strength and conditioning coach to see how central training themes progress from one another as they navigate through the training year and into the competitive season. When inserting small-sided games into the training calendar, coaches must consider how far out of the competitive phase to add them in—adding them too early in the training year will lead to coaches neglecting some basic biomotor abilities.

Following the guidelines of the third piece in this series, coaches want a thorough and well-planned progression that feeds biomechanical landmark positions and tissue stress capacity demands before increasing the intensity and complexity of drills. General training methods that hit on the four cornerstones of athletic abilities (COD, accel, decel, max speed) will prepare the players for specific training environments such as open agility drills.

Taking the first block of training to work on acceleration and deceleration will feed the second training block, which will feature COD and max velocity work before arriving at a training period that builds on the open agility drills and small-sided games. Placing small-sided games four weeks out from the competitive period is ample time to bridge the gap between general training and the specific demands of the incoming practice and game situations.

Placing small-sided games four weeks out from the competitive period is ample time to bridge the gap between general training and the specific demands of the incoming practice and game situations. Share on X

Look at the calendar and work backward from the competitive period to properly gauge how much time the strength and conditioning coach will have because this will significantly impact progressions and exercise selection. If your head coach only gives you four weeks of training prior to spring ball or fall camp, it will really change any complex training modalities scheduled in a longer training block. Be realistic with training progressions based on available time and strength and conditioning coaches being comfortable sending the athletes into season based on preparedness off of the training build-up.

2. Mesocycle

The mesocycle can last 3–6 weeks, depending on the time allotted in the off-season. Knowing the broad strokes provided by the training year overview will make piecing the puzzle together simple and time-effective. Understanding that each block of training will have a main training theme emphasized over the others creates a blueprint for the training weeks in which more detailed planning can take place.

I like to work in four-week blocks, as I feel it is clean and simple when planning the loading over the off-season. When working backward from the training year overview, I know where to end the current training block and when my athletes need to head into the following block. I break my first eight weeks into four themes or blocks to address all the demands needed to prepare players for spring ball. Keep in mind that I utilize a vertical integration model, so some of the other biomotor abilities are still being trained, just at a reduced workload compared to the block’s theme.

The common pattern in this progression is that training becomes more specific to the demands of the game as we travel through the off-season. As a strength and conditioning coach, by the time we arrive at week 8 of the off-season, I want my players to be prepared to perform in a competitive sports environment. Having more than three weeks of small-sided game exposure will bridge the gap between the general training and specific play demands that await them in the following weeks of spring ball. Pairing together training qualities is a subject that is beyond this article’s scope, but using Vladimir Issurin’s research and recommendations will allow for minimal disruption of training adaptations if the coach pairs the appropriate themes.

3. Microcycle

A microcycle is a period of four days to two weeks. This is where every detail matters and the structure and order of training have to be dialed in. Organizing the training week in a way that hits the training objective while providing appropriate recovery windows will enable adaptations that increase performance. Cataloging high-intensity training versus low-intensity training gives coaches an easy format to follow, as you wouldn’t want to bury the athletes with multiple high-intensity sessions.

Training in the week should have an undulated loading pattern that consists of wave-like patterns of high- and low-intensity training sessions. Charlie Francis is a major influence on how I program, and he coined the term “high-low programming.” The undulated loading of high-intensity elements in the week safeguards the athletes by providing 48 hours or 72 hours of recovery based on the use of a five-day training split or a four-day training split.

We utilize a four-day split that contains two high-intensity training days. These two high-intensity days are separated by 72 hours; both come off rest days. When integrating small-sided games into the microcycle, coaches have two options:

1. Provide extended rest periods, emphasize speed and explosiveness in the SSG, and place them on high-intensity days, replacing a sprint session. Outputs will be higher, and reps will be reduced, but there will be many coaching opportunities in the session. This setup of the microcycle is better in the introduction mesocycle of small-sided games because players can slow down and operate in a fresher state compared to option.

Example weekly flow:

2. Reduce rest periods to game rest periods (25 seconds) and treat the session as a specific conditioning session that falls on one lower-intensity day. The players will get far less coaching and double the number of reps compared to the first option. I like to incorporate these sessions leading into season or spring ball to build specific robustness to gameplay demands. This plan is more demanding on the athlete due to the amount of yardage and mechanical stress from decel and the change of directions involved in the sessions of small-sided games.

Example weekly flow:

Series Wrap-Up

There may not be a Holy Grail in strength and conditioning, but that doesn’t stop performance coaches from chasing the perfect training program. S&C coaches seek to prepare the athletes for the demands of the game so that they can be robust and resilient and produce performance at higher levels than before.

Small-sided games are the most logical step in preparing athletes for the specific demands of gameplay that general training cannot provide, says CoachJoeyG. Share on X

Small-sided games are the most logical step in preparing athletes for the specific demands of gameplay that general training cannot provide. Although the mythical program that can be deemed the greatest in athletic development doesn’t necessarily exist for everyone’s circumstances, S&C coaches are getting closer to solving their inherent problems in preparing athletes for the demands of the game with the inclusion of small-sided games and collision prep as it pertains to preparing American football players. With this four-part series, I hope that coaches now have the knowledge and instructions to add small-sided games to their training programs.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Talk of a career as a trainer often paints a picture of glamour, but the reality is that it is a challenging journey that demands more than just a love for workouts or a background as an athlete. As someone living their dream daily, I work with incredible clients and athletes, but I also think it’s essential to shed light on the less-recognized aspects of this profession.

Whether you’re a highly experienced professional or someone on the verge of entering the sports performance field, understanding the following points is crucial for navigating the demanding landscape of the fitness industry.

1. High Turnover Rate

The fitness industry witnesses an alarming 80% annual turnover rate, and an overwhelming number of trainers don’t make it past two years. This career demands a unique resilience and determination to overcome the odds. Personally, I’ve seen colleagues exit the field almost immediately, highlighting the need for a different mindset to thrive.

Embracing change, staying updated on industry trends, and honing diverse skills not only helped me navigate the challenges of the fitness profession but also positioned me as valuable and versatile. Share on X

In the face of the daunting turnover rate, I found that cultivating adaptability and continuously seeking professional development was crucial. Embracing change, staying updated on industry trends, and honing diverse skills not only helped me navigate the challenges but also positioned me as a valuable and versatile fitness professional.

2. Low Pay

Shifting your focus from monetary gains to serving more people is a mantra that resonates in this industry. While the potential for significant income exists, the reality is that it takes time to build a substantial clientele.

To weather the financial uncertainties during the initial phase, I struck a pragmatic balance by taking on a part-time gig driving for DoorDash. This allowed me to sustain my passion for fitness while mitigating the early career instability and building my client base.

3. Clients as Bosses

Working as a trainer means having multiple “bosses”—your clients. Their preferences determine your income, and accommodating their needs, even if it means unconventional session times, becomes a part of the job. The constant risk of losing all clients overnight is a stark reality every trainer faces.

To hedge against the risk of relying too heavily on a specific client demographic, I strategically diversified my clientele. I created a more resilient client portfolio by working with individuals from various sports backgrounds, age groups, and fitness levels. This approach not only provides a safety net in the event of sudden shifts in one segment but also allows for a dynamic and enriching professional experience as I cater to a diverse range of fitness goals and preferences.

4. Weird Hours

Irregular working hours are inherent in this profession. I’ve found myself catering to business owners in the morning, college students in the afternoon, and athletes in the evening, resulting in 12-hour days. Last-minute cancellations contribute to unpredictable schedules, and, as they say, “Show me a successful personal trainer, and I’ll show you someone who abuses caffeine.”

5. Take What You Can Get at First

Early in my career, I aspired to work exclusively with athletes. However, my initial two years were spent primarily training the general population at a big box gym.

Surprisingly, this turned out to be more valuable than I realized, helping me hone fundamental skills in strength and conditioning and gain coaching experience and confidence.

6. Say ‘Yes’ to as Many Opportunities as Possible When Starting Out

Saying “yes” to various opportunities, even when unpaid, sets the foundation for success. Shadowing sessions and training diverse clients—including an 80-year-old woman—became stepping stones that paved the way for a more established career.

7. Be Prepared to Deal with Conflict

Conflict resolution skills are vital, from negotiating prices to managing unexpected changes. As trainers, we must strike a balance between standing our ground and maintaining positive client relationships.

Clear and transparent communication, coupled with a proactive establishment of expectations, allows me to set boundaries effectively and stand my ground when necessary, says @trayner_dave. Share on X

In my approach to conflict resolution, I’ve found that clear and transparent communication, coupled with a proactive establishment of expectations, allows me to set boundaries effectively and stand my ground when necessary—all while fostering a collaborative and respectful atmosphere that encourages clients to stay committed to their fitness journey.

8. You Will Be Judged Based on Your Image

The unfortunate reality is that potential clients often judge a trainer’s knowledge based on their physical appearance. Finding a balance between personal fitness goals and professional commitments remains a constant challenge.

Recognizing the importance of my own well-being as both a personal priority and a strategic business tool, I carve out dedicated time for my training, often scheduling it during less hectic periods or incorporating short, high-intensity sessions to ensure consistent self-care amid busy days in the dynamic fitness industry.

9. A Certification Doesn’t Mean Everything

While certifications are vital, soft skills, marketing, and salesmanship play an equally crucial role. Building relationships and effectively selling oneself are paramount, as witnessed by the success of trainers who may not have extensive training knowledge but excel in people skills.

10. Do No Harm

Prioritizing client safety in exercise programming is non-negotiable. Think like a lawyer when designing workouts to ensure the well-being of clients and yourself, avoiding potential setbacks that could hinder your ability to serve effectively.

11. Limited Benefits

Gyms often do not provide benefits like salary, 401k, paid time off (PTO), and health insurance. Financial planning and flexibility are necessary to navigate the unpredictable income flow in this field.

12. No One Is Going to Hold Your Hand

While mentors and guidance along the way are invaluable, success ultimately hinges on personal determination, grit, and proactive efforts. If the challenges seem insurmountable, alternative corporate desk jobs are always available.

The Unyielding Passion: Thriving Amid the Realities

In the face of the formidable challenges outlined in this article, the heart of a trainer’s journey lies in their unwavering passion for transformation and impact. The joy of witnessing clients conquer their goals, the fulfillment found in continuous self-improvement, and the privilege of being a guiding force in someone’s fitness journey transcend the harsh realities of the job.

It’s the resilience forged through overcoming obstacles, the diverse connections formed with clients, and the personal satisfaction derived from facilitating positive change that keep trainers not just surviving but thriving in this dynamic profession. The rewards of helping others achieve their best selves serve as a powerful source of motivation, eclipsing the trials and tribulations inherent in the fitness industry.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

I met Scott Leech a couple of years ago at a speed and performance conference in Massachusetts, where the dynamic duo of Tony Holler and Chris Korfist was giving a two-day presentation on Reflexive Performance Reset, maximum speed development, and training modalities.

I was a little starstruck at first because I had followed Scott on social media for a while. From his work, I’d long been impressed with the unique training Scott was doing with his athletes at the University of Rhode Island—he was on the cutting edge of collegiate strength and conditioning. Specifically, I loved that he had athletes moving at near top speed, changing direction, accelerating, and decelerating.

Video 1. My athletes performing a circle sprint race to target object. (All videos show how I’ve incorporated Gridiron Warrior elements into training with my high school players.)

What made his work unique was that the athletes were doing it in ways that looked fun and mimicked the demands of football. Also, he played college football with our defensive coordinator, Mike Davis, at Springfield College—the cradle of coaches. So, periodically, we would send Twitter messages back and forth about that.

How the Gridiron Warrior Course Fits in for High School Coaches

I was very excited to see Coach Leech release his entire “Gridiron Warrior” program. Truth be told, I had spent a few years screen recording anything he posted on social media, and then I would replicate the drills with our high school athletes.

The 12-week program is easily digested as a 57-slide presentation with pictures, text, and embedded video of University of Rhode Island football players. The course is geared specifically toward high school football coaches who want to go beyond traditional training methods and take their team to the next level.

Also, it is FUN. Tony Holler always says you must gamify training and make practice the best part of an athlete’s day. Gridiron Warrior does that. 

Video 2. 1v1 tag game from toss and catch.

Course Specifics

Gridiron Warrior is set up as a 12-week program that helps athletes create movement habits and explosive power outputs to become dominant football players. The program is comprehensive and provides:

• Weekly plans to optimize off-season training.
• Warm-ups that are specific to the day’s training.
• Work that targets all the major skills required to be a dominant football player: acceleration, deceleration, max velocity, change of direction, and plyometrics.

Coach Leech also includes a modern take on football conditioning that does not detrain speed and explosiveness.

One of the coolest parts of the Gridiron Warrior program is its contact preparation. Essentially, the idea is to safely recreate the force needed to complete a block or tackle, says @ErikBecker42. Share on X

One of the coolest parts of the Gridiron Warrior program is its contact preparation. Essentially, the idea is to safely recreate the force needed to complete a block or tackle. Athletes are locked together and provide force against each other for a short period.

Video 3. Partner combative drill for contact prep.

I also appreciate the skills-based, competitive aspect of the Gridiron Warrior program. Every game that we play contains a skill that we use on the football field; each drill helps our athletes move better in open space. They replicate the demands of tracking a ball carrier, changing direction at top speed, creating space, or closing space.

Video 4. Tag game for closing space at top speeds.

The program is versatile and can be incorporated into a three -or four-day training week.

Gridiron Gold

The Gridiron Warrior program contains more than 100 short, high-quality videos that explain every aspect of the 12-week program. These are quick-hitting, embedded videos that clearly demonstrate the desired movement outputs. These clips are a phenomenal resource for coaches and athletes alike. Watching these videos, which total more than 2.5 hours of content, makes learning the program fun and easy.

Coach Leech does a great job making this information digestible and easy to understand. The 12-week program consists of:

• More than 100 videos of all drills and exercises covered within the program!
• Three unique speed warm-ups.
• Three phases of on-field speed training.
• Three phases of on-field conditioning.
• Set and rep recommendations for all field work.
• More than 2.5 hours of video explanations for each and every aspect of the program.

As a head football coach, my favorite part of the Gridiron Warrior program is the drills that relate directly to our game. In our state, we have strict rules about what we can and cannot do with our athletes out of season. Coach Leech’s program contains a multitude of “games” that cause athletes to accelerate, decelerate, and change directions that mimic football.

I believe deeply that the training we do should look like the game. I do not find value in submaximal work or long, slow conditioning. I want my players to practice the skills that directly make them better football players. I want them to train 95% or higher. We will build conditioning by stacking that anaerobic work together.

Video 5. Open COD drill with commands.

Video 6. Tag game from COD task.

The drills are set up like games of tag involving changes of direction. They enhance the athlete’s ability to react and accelerate and often simulate the skills an athlete needs for tackling. They cause athletes to close space—either alone or in pairs—and tag the other athlete in a safe way. The on-field drills benefit both the athlete tagging and the one being tagged while also being fun and building team camaraderie.

Each drill is presented in video format. These are not long videos that take forever to get to the point—they are quick and effective. The Gridiron Warrior program is set up to be easy to understand.

Another aspect of Coach Leech’s program that I love is contact prep. This new aspect of training for me is very exciting—it provides a safe way to express force against another player. We always set guys up in pairs of similar size and strength and keep the contact prep intervals short. We are not looking to take anyone to the ground; we are just looking for athletes to express force against each other for 6–12 seconds.

Video 7. Band-resisted sprints add another means of teaching athletes to express force. 

How the Course Has Impacted My Coaching

The Gridiron Warrior program has changed our off-season programming in beautiful ways. As a Track Football Consortium guy, I am a big believer in max speed development. Consequently, the bulk of my off-season programming was timed linear maximum-velocity sprints. My change of direction work was limited to 5-10-5 and the L-drill.

Video 8. L-Drill races.

The Gridiron Warrior program has given us a multitude of drills that allow us to work change of direction, acceleration, and deceleration in ways that relate directly to football and make our athletes better.

The Gridiron Warrior program has given us many drills that allow us to work change of direction, acceleration, and deceleration in ways that relate directly to football and make our athletes better. Share on X

We train three days a week in our off-season training week (winter, spring, and summer). We spend the first 45 minutes on the field and the next hour in the weight room. We want to run fast and lift heavy.

Monday is typically our max speed day. We work linear max-velocity sprints—typically 40s, fly-10s, and some wicket work.

Wednesday is our change of direction day. We utilize the Gridiron Warrior program during the on-field portion of our training session. The drills we like the most are those that simulate tackling in a “tag”-like format. We like to have several high-output stations for our players to rotate through.

We also utilize the Gridiron Warrior program on Fridays, which is our competition and game day. We like having our guys compete and have fun together; using the program allows us to do that in a high-output way. And, as mentioned, the Gridiron Warrior program has introduced us to the awesome world of contact prep, which we do at least once a week in our off-season training.

Video 9. Reactive curved sprint race.

This program contains specific guidelines for weekly training volume—Coach Leech shares how he builds volume up until the start of fall camp. This helpful metric is put together in several charts based on total yardage and speed. The goal is finding the sweet spot between being prepared for the demands of competition and overtraining. I find it incredibly helpful.

You Say You Want a Revolution

I highly recommend the entire Gridiron Warrior program—it is both comprehensive and cutting-edge. Following the program allows coaches to train the speed-power demands of our game by targeting the adenosine triphosphate energy system.

The program also helps coaches train athletes to change directions at high speeds, accelerate, and decelerate rapidly. As a bonus, the course connects you with one of America’s brightest stars in the collegiate strength and conditioning field. Coach Scott Leech is an innovative coach with a very bright future. The Gridiron Warrior revolution starts now.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

If it were possible to decrease the risk of ACL tears through training, would you do it? What if it were possible to decrease the risk of something more sinister—like suicide—with performance training? While having a bond is certainly powerful, there’s more to the puzzle than social impact.

Our brain is our most sensitive organ, standing distinct amongst its peers. Kidney damage doesn’t change who we are. You can remove a lung and although there are consequences, you don’t fundamentally change.

Yet if any part of your brain is damaged, the shockwave can be felt in every ripple of your existence. Personality, mood, thought patterns, beliefs, morals, behaviors…all of this—which makes you who you are—can be affected by brain trauma.

So if we can protect athletes’ brains with training—shouldn’t we?

I am certainly not the first to consider neck training for brain and overall athlete health. Carl Valle and others have long advocated for total athlete health, including neck training for brain health and concussion prevention.

Here, I propose evidence and frameworks that perhaps have been considered, but I’ve not yet seen discussed by others.

Muscular and Neurologic Anatomy

The neck musculature is similar to the hand and wrist in that there are several layers of muscles, and none of us want to remember all their names.

Figure 2. Anatomy of the neck, showing both the deep and superficial musculature.
Created by CFCF, Creative Commons License.

You don’t need to have an intimate understanding of the neck musculature. Rather, I’ve come to understand that there are essentially two functions of neck muscles: cervical stability and head movement.

Stability, a buzzword as it may be, means resisting movement. Thus, cervical stability is preventing the deformation of the cervical spine. In other words, staying still (or perhaps more colloquially, “staying strong”) when taking a hit.

All of the neck musculature contributes both to head movement and cervical stability. We can also appreciate that the larger, superficial muscles—such as the superior trapezius and the levator scapulae—attach to the head itself, while the deep cervical muscles tend to originate from and attach to the cervical spine.

Thus, there are two levels of movement and stability forces: some which act primarily on the cervical spine itself and others that act on the cervical spine and the head. Whether directly or indirectly, all of the neck musculature stabilizes the cervical spine and head in addition to causing movement.

In nature, one primary function of the neck is to keep the head vertical in order to maintain visual and vestibular equilibrium. We see this in animals like cheetahs turning a corner, or players like Messi striking a ball.

It is not surprising, then, that the neck is highly dense with sensory receptors. Specifically, the neck is rich with visual and vestibular afferent neurons. Thus, this region is significant beyond keeping the head upright—it has significant dialogue with the brain regarding the perception of space and proprioception in general.

The neck is significant beyond keeping the head upright—it has significant dialogue with the brain regarding the perception of space and proprioception in general, says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

Accordingly, I now view the neck itself as a sensory organ. This same thought process has led some researchers to wonder:

“If the neck is a sensory organ, what happens when it fatigues?”

Neck fatigue impairs postural and oculomotor control. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, but one hypothesis is that fatigue of the neck musculature impairs the afferent feedback of the sensory receptors, thus sending convoluted or otherwise unclear messaging to the brain.

If you aren’t well-versed in neurology, this may sound like mumbo jumbo at best or witchcraft at worst. My brain works in analogies. Imagine sitting at the end of a long road, lit by streetlights placed every 30 yards or so. You can see the whole road—say a quarter mile. Then, one of the lights goes out. You now have a slightly worse understanding of what’s happening in that unlit spot.

Now imagine cars are speeding towards you. If all the street lights are lit, great—you see the cars and can move out of the way well before they reach you. But what if some lights are out? You lose the car when it drives through the dark spots. No problem, because they eventually come back in the light, but you have less time to react. It’s a bit nerve racking when you lose track of them in the dark.

Such it is with our senses. They are the lights by which our brain understands what is happening in the world around us. And if they are interfered with, we have a worse understanding of the world, and outputs are thus compromised.

What’s more, neck fatigue and stiffness decrease upper extremity motor accuracy and joint proprioception. In laymen’s terms: neck fatigue decreases the ability to reproduce specific upper extremity movements and position with precision. It makes it harder to do the same movement over and over. It (involuntarily) increases movement variability when the goal is not to have variability.

Neck Fatigue and Movement Implications

As a young QB, one of my downfalls was that I’d throw a wild ball here and there. I wasn’t a very accurate passer in general (which is why I didn’t stay at QB for long in college). In hindsight, while I don’t think it was related to my neck, I do think my shoulder injuries made it difficult for me to throw with the same technique every time. Sometimes my technique was off and the ball would sail or die in the dirt.

The lesson here isn’t that variability is bad, it’s that unwanted variability is bad. Being able to reproduce specific movements and outcomes over and over is what sport coaches often call consistency.

The lesson here isn’t that variability is bad, it’s that unwanted variability is bad, says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

Bringing it all together…the research shows us that a tired neck causes inconsistent movement in the upper body. Heck, even neck vibration decreases movement accuracy and precision at the elbow. This relationship has not been explored in the lower body that I am aware of, but the question indeed is posed.

One must ask oneself: can neck fatigue cause lower extremity control problems and potentially contribute to a valgus knee collapse, or perhaps an unwanted ankle roll upon landing?

In fairness, this research¹ was conducted in a lab setting, which also begs the question: how much does the neck fatigue during sport and does this fatigue result in poor movement control?

The Neck, Vision, and Sprint Performance

The observation that neck fatigue decreases postural and oculomotor control should be of interest to sport performance practitioners.

In essence, a tired neck decreases body control and visual skill. Questions I ask myself include:

• Do the high velocity rotational demands of pitching a baseball contribute to neck fatigue?
• Does wearing a helmet during the pre-season after 9 months of potentially no neck training cause fatigue?
• Do wrestlers, soccer athletes who perform headers, American football athletes, and rugby athletes—who are perhaps the most apt to fatigue the neck—require more neck training than others?

And, related—what of the visual skill piece? It is clear that visual skill enhances sport performance. The underlying principles tying visual skill with sport performance are:

• The more accurate your eye movement and control are, the faster you acquire visual targets.
• The faster you acquire targets, the sooner you understand what is happening around you.
• The sooner you understand what is happening around you, the faster you react.

Dean Riddle and I were talking about vision and vision training and he put it simply and beautifully: “It gives you time.”

Therefore, the fact that neck fatigue decreases oculomotor control implies a link to sport performance. Frustratingly, I am not aware of any research on this link, but the crumb trails are there to understand the connection.

Moreover, researchers from the University of Utah demonstrated that neck musculature stabilizes the pelvis during sprint acceleration, sprint deceleration, and vertical jumping.¹² In their words, “the superficial muscles of the neck monitored in this study help to stabilize the pelvis against torques imposed by the extrinsic muscles of the legs at the hip joint” (Boynton & Carrier, 2022).

Most sport performance coaches agree that the pelvis is of critical significance to sprint performance and injury prevention (specifically hamstring injury prevention). Yet, outside of deadlifts, how much time do you spend training the muscles that support the pelvis?

Visual Memory and ACL-tear Risk

Savant artists have the wonderful ability to close their eyes, envision a scene in amazing detail, and recreate the exact image on canvas. This gift requires extraordinary technical skill in the arts as well as impeccable visual memory: the ability to hold an image in detail in the mind’s eye.

If any part of the mental image is inaccurate, or if one simply wasn’t a good enough painter, the final product would come out poorly, resulting in either a beautiful but inaccurate painting or a factually accurate but novice-level work of art.

Visual memory is linked to athletic performance because our brain uses visual memory to execute movement. It is part of the check-and-balance system the cerebellum uses to maintain body parts within the desired movement bandwidth. For more on this, pick up a motor learning and performance text or study the cerebellum and its role in correcting movement.

The stronger you can picture exactly what a movement is supposed to look like—particularly from your own perspective—the more likely you are to execute that movement with exactitude.

Visual memory is linked to athletic performance because our brain uses visual memory to execute movement, says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

A novice mover may have a great visual representation of the desired outcome but simply cannot move his or her body accordingly, likely due to inexperience (not enough reps or coaching). This is the painter who can visualize the image perfectly but isn’t skilled enough with a brush to recreate it.

An expert mover with poor visual memory—also perhaps from not enough reps or coaching—has the ability to control his or her body at will, but does not have the intuitive “know-how” to execute the movement. A master with a brush, but who has never seen a snowy mountain peak—so how can he paint one?

But what does visual memory have to do with the risk of ACL injury?

We know that athletes who have torn an ACL have worse visual memory than those who haven’t (Swanik et al., 2007) and we know that worse visual memory is correlated with greater time to stability and decreased proprioception in those who’ve torn an ACL (Chaput et al., 2022). Furthermore, neurocognitive testing—including visual assessments—are recommended as part of the return-to-play battery of testing in ACL rehab (Grooms et al., 2023).

This data isn’t perfectly telling or flawless, but it does suggest a deeper relationship between motor control for athletes who have torn an ACL.

We also know that for those who have not torn an ACL, low visual scores are associated with increased:

• Peak anterior tibial shear force (Herman and Barth, 2016)
• Peak knee abduction moment and angle (Herman and Barth, 2016)
• Peak knee valgus during ball-handling task (Monfort et al., 2019)

These are the classic biomechanical predispositions to ACL tears, and those with worse visual memory display them more radically than those with higher scores.

All in all, I do believe there is a moderately strong case to be made that visual memory indeed does influence ACL-tear risk.

Speaking of Neurocognitive Testing: Head Trauma, The Neck and Performance

Heading frequency in soccer is related to cognitive performance. What’s more: heading is more related to cognitive performance than unintentional head impacts, like head-to-head or even head-to-goalpost collisions (Stewart et. al., 2018). The reasons for this relationship are most likely related to frequency—30 headers may add up to more trauma than the average head-to-head collision.

Heading frequency in soccer is related to cognitive performance. What’s more: heading is more related to cognitive performance than unintentional head impacts, says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

Nonetheless, the data definitely shows that headers decrease psychomotor speed and attention, and although it was not statistically significant, there are likely on-the-field and in-real-life implications for working memory (p = 0.06 in the Stewart paper cited above).

Moreover, 30.6% and 25.3% of soccer-related concussions are caused by headers in boys’ and girls’ U.S. high schools, respectively (Comstock et al., 2015).

So, we know heading decreases cognitive function and causes concussions. What does this have to do with the neck? Waring et. al. (2022) performed a fascinating study and provided deeper insights into neck–brain–body interconnectedness.

The researchers had a team of soccer players perform 20 headers back-to-back and then complete a neurocognitive screening test. Recall from the previous section that neurocognitive function—like visual memory—is believed to be a contributing factor to ACL tears and perhaps other injuries.

Half the soccer team performed neck-training for the next six weeks, the other half did not. The training was simple and consisted of band resisted neck extensions, flexions, and lateral flexions. Nothing else was different between the players’ training.

Then they re-did the protocol: 20 headers followed by neurocognitive testing.

The researchers found that “the cervical neck strengthening protocol allowed maintenance of visual memory scores.”

In other words: the control group, who did not perform neck training, experienced decreased neurocognitive function as a result of repeated head trauma, whereas athletes who had stronger necks did not suffer from neurocognitive deficits following head trauma.

The neck is, physically, the bridge between brain and body. Naturally, we must ask: is it farfetched to conclude that neck training has an impact on ACL-tear risk? I don’t believe so. Surely, there are a myriad of factors that contribute to any injury. To be clear, I do not propose that neck training eliminates risk. Of course not.

But is the neck a piece of the puzzle? I believe there is a neurological case to be made that, yes, neck health indeed does impact peripheral motor control, and thus, injury risk. So, I asked myself: is there research to show link between brain damage and ACL-tear risk?

And the Research Says…

…yes.

The research says there is a definitive link between concussion, brain health, and the risk of all kinds of injuries, not just ACL tears (Bertozzi et al., 2023; Gilbert et al., 2016; Hunzinger et al., 2021; Kakavas et al., 2021; Kakavas et al., 2023; McPherson et al., 2020; Phillips, 2022; Smulligan et al., 2022).

Neck Strength, Training, and Concussion Risk

There are a couple dozen papers I’m aware of that investigate or report on the relationship between neck strength, neck training, and concussion risk. Unfortunately, most of them are not of great quality.

For example, a couple of the papers I read do not specify the training protocol—they simply relay that athletes performed neck training for an amount of time. The exercises, volumes, and intensities are not reported. Another paper used bodyweight exercises that one of the authors presumably named after himself that were likely not exercises most strength coaches would implement. Thus, whether they report a protective effect against concussion or not, the results of these papers are relatively meaningless.

Perhaps the most commonly cited study in strength and conditioning circles is the 2014 Collins et al. paper. Undoubtedly, the most commonly quoted sentence from that paper is: “For every one-pound increase in neck strength, odds of concussion decreased by 5%.”

That is a head-turning sentence. One can deduce that adding 10 pounds of neck strength thus reduces concussion risk by 50%!

This led me to ask: how strong can a neck get? I’d never tested neck strength and was not familiar with such data. So, I looked and found an answer in a 2022 paper by Waring et al.

One can deduce that adding 10 pounds of neck strength thus reduces concussion risk by 50%! Says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

This was a fantastic project that clearly detailed the training protocol, as well as pre- and post-isometric strength measures. We see clear increases in neck strength after just six weeks of training with a simple, linearly progressed volume scheme.

We see clear increases in neck strength after just six weeks of training with a simple, linearly progressed volume scheme, says @KD_KyleDavey. Share on X

The athletes in this study increased anterior neck strength by about 7.5 pounds. Combining data from the Collins et al. study, one can conclude those athletes perhaps reduced concussion risk by 22.5%.

However, there are those who do not believe neck strength provides a protective benefit against concussion. In fairness, one can only conclude from the current state of the literature that the jury is still out. Literature reviews note inconclusive and mixed evidence. For instance, Cooney et al. (2022) states that “head-neck strength and size variables were at times associated with protection against mTBI incidence and reduced impact kinematics (14/22 studies found one or more head-neck variable to be associated with protection); however, some studies did not find these relationships (8/22 studies found no significant associations or relationships).”

A 2021 literature review (Daly et al.) concludes that “there is currently a lack of evidence to support the use of neck strengthening interventions in reducing impact injury risk in adult populations who participate in sport.”

As discussed previously in this article, many of the intervention-based research papers regarding neck strength and concussion risk are of dubious quality. It is my belief that those which were done well—like the 2022 Waring et al. project—do show a protective benefit.

For this reason, I’m a believer.

With that being said, it is worth noting that reducing risk cuts a fraction of a percentage. Different sports have differently reported risk values in terms of risk percentage. For argument’s sake, let’s say concussion risk is 3.5% for a sport you are interested in. A 50% reduction in risk would thus reduce overall risk of concussion to 1.75%. I believe it was Matt Tenan who I first saw propose this analysis.

Is the juice worth the squeeze to reduce absolute risk by 1.75%? Personally, I believe so—especially if we’re talking 10 to 15 minutes per week of training—but that is up to you as a coach to determine.

Neck Training: A Moral Obligation?

If you could reduce risk of an ACL tear with training, would you implement such methods?

Of course you would.

Without diminishing the effects of an ACL injury, I think we can agree the brain is much more important than the knee. Brain injuries can affect every aspect of one’s existence and experience of life. A 15-minute exercise done six times per week does the trick for strengthening the neck. With virtually no risk involved with the exercises (when properly performed), the risk/reward ratio is heavily in our favor.

If there’s even a chance that I can reduce the likelihood or severity of a brain injury in the athletes I work with, I’m going to do it.

Are you?

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Zabihhosseinian, M., Holmes, M. W., & Murphy, B. (2015). Neck muscle fatigue alters upper limb proprioception. Experimental brain research, 233, 1663-1675.

Majcen Rosker, Z., Vodicar, M., & Kristjansson, E. (2022). Is Altered Oculomotor Control during Smooth Pursuit Neck Torsion Test Related to Subjective Visual Complaints in Patients with Neck Pain Disorders?. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(7), 3788.

Rosker, Z. M., Kristjansson, E., Vodicar, M., & Rosker, J. (2021). Postural balance and oculomotor control are influenced by neck kinaesthetic functions in elite ice hockey players. Gait & Posture, 85, 145-150.

Rosker, Z. M., Kristjansson, E., Vodicar, M., & Rosker, J. (2021). Postural balance and oculomotor control are influenced by neck kinaesthetic functions in elite ice hockey players. Gait & Posture, 85, 145-150.

Morrison, D.M. Russell, K. Kelleran, M.L. Walker, Bracing of the trunk and neck has a differential effect on head control during gait, J. Neurophysiol. 114 (2015) 1773–1783,

Noda, T., Nakajima, S., Sasano, T., & Shigeno, K. (1993). Importance of cervical muscles in galvanic body sway test. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 113(sup503), 191-193.

Haavik, H., & Murphy, B. (2011). Subclinical neck pain and the effects of cervical manipulation on elbow joint position sense. Journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics, 34(2), 88-97.

Zabihhosseinian, M., Holmes, M. W., & Murphy, B. (2015). Neck muscle fatigue alters upper limb proprioception. Experimental brain research, 233, 1663-1675.

Appelbaum, L. G., & Erickson, G. (2018). Sports vision training: A review of the state-of-the-art in digital training techniques. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 160-189.

Lebeau, J. C., Liu, S., Sáenz-Moncaleano, C., Sanduvete-Ces, S., Chacón-Moscoso, S., Becker, B. J., & Tenenbaum, G. (2016). Quiet eye and performance in sport: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(5), 441-457.

Kung, S. M., Suksreephaisan, T. K., Perry, B. G., Palmer, B. R., & Page, R. A. (2020). The effects of anticipation and visual and sensory performance on concussion risk in sport: a review. Sports Medicine-Open, 6, 1-14.

Boynton, A. M., & Carrier, D. R. (2022). The human neck is part of the musculoskeletal core: cervical muscles help stabilize the pelvis during running and jumping. Integrative Organismal Biology, 4(1), obac021.

Chaput, M., Onate, J. A., Simon, J. E., Criss, C. R., Jamison, S., McNally, M., & Grooms, D. R. (2022). Visual cognition associated with knee proprioception, time to stability, and sensory integration neural activity after ACL reconstruction. Journal of Orthopaedic Research®, 40(1), 95-104.

Grooms, D. R., Chaput, M., Simon, J. E., Criss, C. R., Myer, G. D., & Diekfuss, J. A. (2023). Combining Neurocognitive and Functional Tests to Improve Return to Sport Decisions Following ACL Reconstruction. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, (0), 1-14.

Waring, K. M., Smith, E. R., Austin, G. P., & Bowman, T. G. (2022). Exploring the Effects of a Neck Strengthening Program on Purposeful Soccer Heading Biomechanics and Neurocognition. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 17(6), 1043.

Stewart, W. F., Kim, N., Ifrah, C., Sliwinski, M., Zimmerman, M. E., Kim, M., … & Lipton, M. L. (2018). Heading frequency is more strongly related to cognitive performance than unintentional head impacts in amateur soccer players. Frontiers in neurology, 9, 240.

Comstock, R. D., Currie, D. W., Pierpoint, L. A., Grubenhoff, J. A., & Fields, S. K. (2015). An evidence-based discussion of heading the ball and concussions in high school soccer. JAMA pediatrics, 169(9), 830-837.

McPherson, A. L., Shirley, M. B., Schilaty, N. D., Larson, D. R., & Hewett, T. E. (2020). Effect of a concussion on anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in a general population. Sports medicine, 50(6), 1203-1210.

Smulligan, K. L., Wilson, J. C., & Howell, D. R. (2022). Increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries after concussion. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, 30(1), 150896.

Hunzinger, K. J., Costantini, K. M., Swanik, C. B., & Buckley, T. A. (2021). Diagnosed concussion is associated with increased risk for lower extremity injury in community rugby players. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 24(4), 368-372.

Bertozzi, F., Fischer, P. D., Hutchison, K. A., Zago, M., Sforza, C., & Monfort, S. M. (2023). Associations between cognitive function and ACL injury-related biomechanics: a systematic review. Sports health, 19417381221146557.

Gilbert, F. C., Burdette, G. T., Joyner, A. B., Llewellyn, T. A., & Buckley, T. A. (2016). Association between concussion and lower extremity injuries in collegiate athletes. Sports health, 8(6), 561-567.

Phillips, B. M. (2022), The correlation between ACL injury and concussion.

Kakavas, G., Giannakopoulos Sr, I., Tsiokanos, A., Potoupnis, M., & Tsaklis, P. V. (2023). The effect of ball heading and subclinical concussion on the neuromuscular control of the lower limb: a systematic review. International journal of sports physical therapy, 18(5), 1054.

Kakavas, G., Malliaropoulos, N., Blach, W., Bikos, G., Migliorini, F., & Maffulli, N. (2021). Ball heading and subclinical concussion in soccer as a risk factor for anterior cruciate ligament injury. Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research, 16, 1-4.

Tabbert H, Ambalavanar U, Murphy B. Neck Muscle Vibration Alters Upper Limb Proprioception as Demonstrated by Changes in Accuracy and Precision during an Elbow Repositioning Task. Brain Sci. 2022 Nov 12;12(11):1532. doi: 10.3390/brainsci12111532. PMID: 36421856; PMCID: PMC9688255.

The image of an exhausted athlete leaving the field to submerge themselves in an ice bath is a popular trope in the media. Coaches and athletic trainers have used this method and similar approaches for years. But how effective are cold-water immersion protocols in improving performance? What does the science say about its efficacy?

The research on ice baths and other cold-water immersion protocols returns mixed results. However, multiple variables play into any equation. Timing, temperature, length of exposure, and frequency of exposure are only a few of the factors coaches must consider when determining whether to use this treatment. Furthermore, slight variations provide various applications for different uses.

What do athletic trainers need to know? Here’s an in-depth look at cold-water immersion protocols for modulating immune response and inflammation and how coaches can use the existing science to maximize performance on the playing field.

The Body’s Response to Exercise

What happens to the body during and immediately following exercise? Most people focus on the benefits. Training can increase an individual’s VO² max, decrease heart rate and blood pressure, and build muscle mass. It also activates various substances and enzymes in multiple bodily systems.

For example, hormones like adrenaline and cortisol impact cardiovascular function. Exercise moderates their levels, spiking them during and immediately after intense exercise. They typically return to normal except in cases of overtraining, where the failure to decrease results in symptoms like increased irritability and inability to focus.

Adipose tissue releases adipokines and cytokines, which play crucial roles in inflammation and the body’s healing response to exercise. Muscles produce myokines, facilitating communication between the muscles and other organs and playing a role in recovery. Intestinal microbiota cranks up the fermentation of short-chain fatty acids in the gut to provide long-lasting energy to cells. Finally, the liver increases hepatokine production to regulate lipid metabolism.

Understanding how the body responds to exercise is crucial for coaches in determining the best protocols. It’s not the only factor they must consider, though. According to Dr. Robin Thorpe, senior performance scientist and conditioning coach for Manchester United Football Club, a coach must also look at the trade-off between adaptation and recovery. They must examine the underlying cause of fatigue—is it a temporarily inflamed knee thanks to repeated strain or metabolic fatigue extending across various energy systems?

Time is also a crucial consideration, including how long after exertion to use specific protocols and at what point in the season. For example, many trainers consider full ice bath immersion absurd in the pre-season. Inflammation plays a crucial role in inducing certain adaptations coaches want to encourage during this time, such as muscle growth and VO² capacity.

Cold-water immersion immediately after exercise may feel great because of the temperature’s anesthetizing effects. However, it can suppress the release of IGF-1 and other healing substances carried to muscles by inflammatory cells—the same cytokines and adipokines accompanying swelling and redness. Healing slows down without a healthy supply, decreasing performance on the field.

Additionally, using ice during training may prevent the hypertrophic muscle changes desired through exercise. One recent study on the effect of ice baths immediately following a resistance training session found that exposure to cold-water immersion weakened the muscular adaptations typically seen as a result of such exercise.

Evidence also suggests that shifting the timing of the ice application provides a crucial difference. Share on X

However, evidence also suggests that shifting the timing of the ice application provides a crucial difference. A cool—though not necessarily cold—bath 24 hours after exertion gives the nerve pathways used by these chemicals time to return to normal. It provides soothing refreshment but doesn’t interfere with the body’s natural healing work.

Techniques for Using Cold-Water Immersion in Athletics Programs

Ice and ice therapy has a role, even earlier in the season. While it will not cause muscle tissue to heal or grow more quickly, there’s more to athletic performance than the size of a linebacker’s biceps or the strength of their connective tissues. Exercise and on-field performance rely on the integrated coordination of multiple systems, including the central nervous system and that all-important component of it—the brain.

Coaches must know that inappropriately used ice therapy can hinder healing. The verdict remains out as to its overall effectiveness at reducing swelling. However, its power to relieve pain has been proven time and again. Pain is a huge determinant of on-field performance, as every survival instinct in the human body screams against “playing through it” for a good reason.

The body has various thermoreceptors and nociceptors, specialized nerve cells that detect temperature changes. These also influence muscle contraction and hair follicles—creating the signature “hair raising” effect occurring with goosebumps. Their job is to maintain homeostasis—in this case, a consistent temperature—by encouraging muscle contraction to raise interior heat and avoid cell death.

However, there are times when deadening the nerves and stopping the pain impulses allows performance to continue. For example, cryoanalgesia provides temporary nerve blockage to reduce pain along peripheral nerve pathways. It can serve a crucial role in treating chronic pain from scar tissue adhesions arising from previous, healed injuries that impact on-field performance.

Pain serves a critical purpose. It’s meant to tell humans to stop an activity to prevent further injury. However, using ice to ease pain in limited instances, like the above example, is an important tip for coaches to understand.

Cryoanalgesia is only one potentially useful application of cold-water immersion protocols in athletic training. Athletes must keep their heads in the game, and pain from overtraining can distract them and leave them with fatigue that’s as much mental as physical. The temporary psychological boost they receive from an ice bath creates a temporary illusion of healing that may give an athlete the right on-field mental edge to push past exhaustion and triumph over the competition.

Coaches must balance their athletes’ desire for a quick dip to regain their edge against the potential for injury. While this approach works to combat general fatigue, it shouldn’t encourage someone to play through a potentially dangerous condition.

Coaches must balance their athletes’ desire for a quick dip in an ice bath to regain their edge against the potential for injury. Share on X

Likewise, coaches should keep such immersions short. Remember, exposure to cold causes muscular contraction, and tight muscles are more readily injured than warm, pliable ones. Prolonged cold-water immersion could leave an athlete unnaturally tense, leading to on-field disaster.

Coaches must also factor body fat, mass, and weight into the equation when approving cold-water immersion protocols. The core temperature drops more quickly in those with less fat and mass. For example, an American football lineman will resist a core temperature drop more than a soccer player. In contrast, sumo wrestlers have an edge on both of them for maintaining a consistent inner thermostat.

Francisco Tavares, PhD, suggests the following times and temperature variations for ice bath intensity, depending on the athlete’s size:

• Low: Eight minutes at 15° Celsius
• Moderate-low: 10 minutes at 15° Celsius
• Moderate-high: Eight minutes at 10° Celsius
• High: 10 minutes at 10° Celsius

Tavares advises using lower intensity for low-mass and low-bodyweight fighters. He cautions that larger athletes might need greater exposure, perhaps lengthening the immersion time, as they demonstrate lower core temperature changes after exposure.

Compare that to the typical immersion protocols some coaches use. Significantly shortening the length of the dip may be a wise choice.

Also, please note that the water temperature has a negligible effect on core body temperature. However, there’s a more significant difference in superficial and deep muscle temperature. Therefore, a brief dip of 10 minutes or less in a very cool tub of 0° C to 12° C could provide sufficient numbing, while longer dips do little good and may even increase injury risk by making muscles overly tight.

Mechanism and Effects of Cold-Water Immersion on Immune Response and Inflammation

Athletes often endure lasting inflammation affecting overused joints and tissues. Tennis elbow is one example of such an overuse injury. How effective are cold-water immersion protocols in reducing long-term inflammatory conditions arising from overuse? Can they address the systemic inflammation that occurs with chronic conditions affecting athletic performance?

Typically, heat is a more effective therapy for chronic injuries, as it encourages blood flow to the area to deliver the necessary nutrients for healing. For example, if an athlete has had previous knee surgery and chronic pain in the area, even moderate physical activity may aggravate it. However, applying ice to a chronically achy area immediately after exertion may lower the inflammation triggered by the body’s learned response.

When signals frequently stimulate the same receptors and travel the same neural pathways, these areas become sensitized to particular triggers. Therefore, the stimuli that might not prompt an inflammatory response in a previously uninjured individual can cause an exaggerated one in others. An athlete’s bum knee may always grumble a bit after practice, and ice may decrease this sensitivity.

It’s also important to understand how inflammation becomes chronic. It occurs in three waves. Acute inflammation happens immediately following an infection or injury. Chronic inflammation may last months or even years, with subacute inflammation serving as a transformational period of two to six weeks between the acute and chronic stages.

Here’s another area where athletic coaches may consider cold-water immersion protocols in hopes of preventing acute injuries that don’t require medical attention from becoming longer-lasting. Breaking the inflammatory chain may guard against chronic inflammatory conditions and keep minor issues from snowballing into lifelong problems.

Coaches should coordinate with physical therapists and the rest of an athlete’s treatment team and heed their advice. However, using cold-water immersion protocols to treat injuries after the acute phase has passed—but in the weeks before returning to the field—may keep a twisted ankle from burgeoning into a veritable Achilles heel.

Whole-Body Cryotherapy as an Alternative to Cold-Water Immersion Protocols

In recent years, whole-body cryotherapy has emerged as a competitor to cold-water immersion protocols such as ice baths. The practice has gained considerable popularity despite a relative dearth of scientific evidence supporting its use.

However, a recent study examined the dose-response effects of whole-body cryotherapy on elite rugby players. They found that two consecutive exposures immediately following fatiguing league competition stimulated an increase in their anabolic endocrine profile and reduced cytokine concentrations, a measure of inflammatory molecules in the blood. This made it possible to lower the body’s stress response and restore hormonal balance after extreme exertion.

Cryotherapy can get costly, with sessions ranging from $60 to several hundred dollars per session. Other cold-water immersion protocols, such as ice baths, are next to free.

Cryotherapy can get costly, with sessions ranging from $60 to several hundred dollars per session. Other cold-water immersion protocols, such as ice baths, are next to free. Share on X

Furthermore, the mixed science means coaches must carefully weigh the potential risks against the benefits. If muscle-building in the preseason is the ultimate goal, avoiding cold-water immersion protocols is probably the best choice for most athletes. However, those needing a slight psychological edge, especially if their primary issue is fatigue from stress, may benefit from a dip. Such methods may help other bodily systems, such as the endocrine system, recover.

Using Cold-Water Immersion Protocols to Improve Athletic Performance

Cold-water immersion protocols such as ice baths have had a long history in athletic training. Coaches must understand how such methods affect the body so that they can use them to their greatest advantage. Although ice can inhibit muscle growth, it can calm the nervous system and the body’s inflammatory response and bring other bodily systems back into balance.

Knowing when and how to use cold-water immersion protocols helps coaches improve on-field performance. It also enhances athletes’ overall health, keeping them in the game.

Reference

White GE and Wells GD. “Cold-water immersion and other forms of cryotherapy: physiological changes potentially affecting recovery from high-intensity exercise.” Extreme Physiology & Medicine. 2013;2(26).

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

“How can I hit more bombs?”

“Why can’t I ever seem to find pull-away speed in the last 25 meters of my 100-meter race?”

“Can you help me dunk by next month?”

Strength and conditioning coaches everywhere can relate to being asked one or more of these questions. This article will discuss the energy system that is responsible for the explosive movements at the heart of the above questions: the anaerobic alactic system. We’ll cover the mechanics behind it, how long it can produce energy, and how it can be improved in different levels of athletes.

The difference between the anaerobic lactic (glycolytic) and anaerobic alactic (phosphocreatine) energy systems lies in the extra “a” before the word “lactic.” Alactic means that lactic acid is not produced during this type of exercise, and anaerobic means that oxygen is not needed to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the fuel that your muscles rely on.

The anaerobic alactic system will be referred to as the phosphocreatine system throughout the rest of this article. Phosphocreatine is an important chemical that plays a crucial role in regenerating ATP during short bouts of extremely explosive movements (e.g., hitting a home run, kicking it into sixth gear for the last 25 meters of a sprint, dunking a basketball).

While the phosphocreatine system can produce the highest amount of energy in the shortest amount of time, this comes at the cost of only being able to produce energy for a very short period. Share on X

The phosphocreatine system can supply energy to the working muscles for 10–12 seconds before it has to lean on the glycolytic or aerobic system for energy production. While it can produce the highest amounts of energy in the shortest amount of time, this comes at the cost of only being able to produce energy for a very short period. If the aerobic system is a car’s gas tank, and the glycolytic system is a car’s ability to operate at its highest RPM for just over 60 seconds, then the phosphocreatine system can be thought of as a car’s 0–60 mph time.

Similar to how fats and carbs are stored in the body, phosphocreatine is also stored in the body. The phosphocreatine system does not need oxygen, fats, or carbohydrates to produce energy. This is both good and bad: good because the phosphocreatine system has relatively few moving parts; bad because very little phosphocreatine can be stored in the body, hence the quick run time of the phosphocreatine system.

It should be mentioned that the aerobic system plays a huge role in how quickly the phosphocreatine system can recover between explosive movements. Once all of the stored phosphocreatine is used up, the only way it can be replenished during the same workout is through the aerobic system. For this reason, building a strong aerobic base is not just important for cross-country runners but for any type of athlete. All three energy systems usually work together in the background during all kinds of exercise.

The phosphocreatine system is the simplest and easiest energy system to quantify and track. Any type of 1–3 rep max in the weight room can be used to assess the phosphocreatine system’s ability. Olympic lifts are preferred due to their explosive nature, but a squat and/or bench max can be used just the same. Depending on the athlete, sport-specific movements can also be used to assess and track. The distance a shot put is thrown, the time a sprint takes (100 meters or less), or how high an athlete can jump (either an approach jump or a true vertical) can all be used to measure this energy system. As long as the testing method stays consistent, there are many simple ways to test and track the phosphocreatine system’s ability.

As long as the testing method stays consistent, there are many simple ways to test and track the phosphocreatine system’s ability. Share on X

Author’s note: Throughout these articles on conditioning, the main citation used will refer to Joel Jamieson’s Ultimate MMA Conditioning. While this book is specific to mixed martial arts, the methods discussed in it can be applied to any sport, from cross country to shot put. During my years as an athletic performance student, my mentors referred to Ultimate MMA Conditioning as the gold standard for energy system development (ESD). As I have ventured into running a year-round high school athletic performance program for various sports, I have found Jamieson’s methods to be second to none.

Before diving into the specifics of the different energy systems, it’s important to define what the broad term “conditioning” means. Jamieson defines conditioning as “a measure of how well an athlete is able to meet the energy production demands of their sport.” This means that a basketball player who can jump, cut, and shoot efficiently while still making it back on defense for the entirety of the game is just as conditioned as a long jumper who can jump and recover three or more times during a meet. Simply put, conditioning is specific to the sport at hand.

How Do You Improve the Phosphocreatine System?

As mentioned above, the phosphocreatine system is relatively straightforward and has the fewest steps out of all three energy systems. Simple = fast, which is a good thing. However, the fewer the steps in the energy production process, the less opportunity it has to be trained and improved. It’s for this reason that the phosphocreatine system is the least trainable energy system.

Similar to the glycolytic energy system, the ability of an athlete’s phosphocreatine system is largely genetic. This mainly has to do with the fact that the amount of fast twitch muscle fibers an athlete has is largely determined by genetics (Mustafina et al., 2014). The amount of fast twitch muscle fibers an athlete has correlates with the phosphocreatine system’s potential—the more fast twitch muscle fibers an athlete naturally has, the more power they can produce.

You can train the phosphocreatine system by targeting either power or capacity. Improving phosphocreatine power is mainly done by increasing the amount of specific enzymes used during the energy production process. For example, creatine kinase plays an important role in the phosphocreatine system as it helps speed up the breakdown of phosphocreatine. Higher levels of creatine kinase are found in the blood after strenuous exercise. The faster the process, the more powerful the system.

Phosphocreatine capacity is improved by increasing the amount of phosphocreatine and ATP stored in the working muscles. This is where creatine supplements can be useful. While creatine is naturally found in red meat (steak), poultry (chicken), fish (tuna), and other food sources, using a creatine supplement can help an athlete max out their creatine stores, ultimately improving their phosphocreatine system’s energy production ability.

With a simple process and a large genetic component, the ability to train and improve the phosphocreatine system is the most limited of the three energy systems, but not impossible. Share on X

With a simple process and a large genetic component, the ability to train and improve the phosphocreatine system is the most limited of the three energy systems. This doesn’t mean it’s impossible, only that the margin for improvement is nowhere near as large as with the other two systems. The methods discussed in the next section are rather straightforward and are probably already included in most strength and conditioning programs.

Beginner

Beginner athletes need to build a strong foundation of strength and coordination before anything else. As a beginner athlete, the weight room is an unexplored world with many potential benefits waiting to be discovered. These might be your incoming freshmen (at the high school level) or someone with a training age of < 1 year. These athletes don’t know what a hinge is, let alone have any knowledge of how their bodies produce the energy they use on a daily basis.

There’s no need to have these athletes do specific phosphocreatine work. The biggest thing these athletes need is reps, reps, and more reps in the weight room. Teaching them foundational movements, improving their coordination, lifting them through full ranges of motion, and improving their nervous system’s ability to recruit and use all available muscle fibers for a specific lift will be more than enough to improve their phosphocreatine abilities.

To put it simply, the stronger an athlete is, the better their phosphocreatine abilities will be. For this discussion, strength and phosphocreatine abilities can be synonymous, says @Steve20Haggerty. Share on X

To put it simply, the stronger an athlete is, the better their phosphocreatine abilities will be. For this discussion, strength and phosphocreatine abilities can be synonymous. If these beginner athletes spend 3–6 months in the weight room doing consistent work, their phosphocreatine abilities will be much improved. As long as the weight room work is appropriate and correctly progressed, they should be much stronger after a few months.

General training objectives for a properly put-together weight room program don’t need to be adjusted to target the phosphocreatine system. If the athletes are getting stronger, their phosphocreatine system is improving. Here are a few concepts to keep in mind when designing a foundational lifting program for beginner athletes:

1. Time under tension: a coach’s best friend; a beginner athlete’s worst nightmare.

Prescribing tempos and pauses with all compound movements for the first 2–4 months goes a long way in building a great foundation of strength. Something as simple as a three-second eccentric paired with a three-second pause at the bottom of a movement can make a huge difference in what the athlete gets out of the lift. The longer a beginner athlete spends in the eccentric, concentric, and isometric portions of a lift, the better their coordination and muscle recruitment will be. The more muscle fibers an athlete can recruit, the higher their strength and power outputs will be.

2. Take your time: it’s much easier to progress than regress.

Assuming you’ll have multiple years of work with these athletes, it’s important to keep a timeline in perspective. Most of the beginner athletes who come into my program will be there for four years. To put it into perspective, I tell our incoming freshmen (14-year-olds) that we have more than a fourth of their current life to commit to the weight room.

They won’t squat under a bar for months, and most of our movements are bodyweight-focused, with the option to progress and load as needed. If an athlete has a training age of six months and is benching with resistance bands, they’ve lost out on a great deal of progress that could have been made by simply hammering the basics. As much as beginner athletes don’t want to hear it, the weight room is a game of repetition. It might not be Instagram-worthy, but the simple, foundational work is often the most valuable.

3. Don’t be afraid to let athletes who have proven themselves feel heavy weight.

After an athlete has lifted for a few months and can demonstrate proper technique under moderate load, there are benefits to letting them handle heavy weights. Our athletes have to earn the ability to work with heavy weights by consistently showing up and showing us that they can maintain proper technique and control with moderate loads.

“Heavy weights” doesn’t mean we let them attempt a one-rep max after a couple months of lifting. It can be as simple as letting them work up to a heavy set of three. Doing a set of 10 reps with a three-second pause at the bottom is a different type of challenge than doing a heavy triple. The heavier the weight, the higher the number of muscle fibers recruited, which in turn directly improves the athlete’s phosphocreatine abilities.

Intermediate

These athletes have proven their commitment to the weight room and can perform all foundational movements. They understand how to move their body and have been under heavy loads. They can perform proper tempo sets and have a training age of at least one year. These intermediate athletes can now move on to the next step in improving their phosphocreatine abilities: phosphocreatine capacity intervals.

An energy system’s capacity deals with how long it can produce energy. In order to train capacity, you need to push the specific system to its limits. For the phosphocreatine system, that looks like this: 10–12 reps, with each rep lasting 10–15 seconds and each rest interval lasting between 20 and 90 seconds. Complete 2–3 sets, using one exercise each, making sure to actively rest for 8–10 minutes between sets. Active rest can be a slow jog (or fast walk), jump rope, or steady bike work.

It’s important to remember the main objective here should be to maintain maximal power output for the entire length of the rep. Training the most explosive energy system requires maximal effort for each rep. Anything under 100% intensity per rep will not tax the phosphocreatine system adequately. Performing these intervals properly for 1–3 months will increase the athlete’s phosphocreatine stores, which is one of the two discussed methods of improving the phosphocreatine system.

Training the most explosive energy system requires maximal effort for each rep. Anything under 100% intensity per rep will not adequately tax the phosphocreatine system, says @Steve20Haggerty. Share on X

Any explosive exercise can be used during these intervals. Ideal exercises use the full body with easily repeatable or continuous reps. Jump squats, switch jump lunges, sprints, assault bike sprints, full-body rope slams, and plyometric push-ups are examples of exercises that would work well for these intervals. Sport-specific drills can also be used as long as they are high-intensity in nature.

While the phosphocreatine system has small margins for improvement, intermediate athletes who haven’t done any specific energy system training will see improvements. If nothing else, doing these intervals will also help improve the aerobic system’s recovery ability. If both the aerobic and phosphocreatine systems can be improved using the same interval work, that’s a true win-win.

Regardless of what the work:rest intervals look like, athletes will become fatigued during these sessions if they’re done correctly. It’s important to encourage them to work at the highest output possible throughout the session. Again, anything less than 100% intensity won’t cut it. Push through the fatigue and reap the rewards.

Advanced

These athletes have years in the weight room under their belts and have more than a strong foundation of strength. Their training age is > 2 years, and they understand how to work at maximal outputs for the duration of their training sessions. If they’re looking for ways to improve their phosphocreatine system’s abilities (which is a never-ending pursuit), a creatine supplement can help do just that.

Supplements can be an extremely attractive option for athletes looking for any type of advantage over their competition. In reality, the supplement industry is unregulated and can be a sketchy place for athletes and coaches alike. Unless an athlete has been consistently training for at least a year, I don’t recommend any supplements to my athletes. If they have at least a year of training, creatine and protein powder are the only two supplements I’ll discuss with my athletes. These are the only two supplements that have solid research supporting their benefits [Sharma, Saini, & Patil, 2022].

If they have at least a year of training, creatine and protein powder are the only two supplements I’ll discuss with my athletes. Share on X

As mentioned previously, creatine stores play a significant role in the phosphocreatine system’s abilities. Creatine is stored in muscles and combines with phosphate to create—you guessed it—phosphocreatine. The more creatine the body can store, the longer the phosphocreatine system can generate power.

Two important points to remember when discussing creatine supplements:

1. The label is there for a reason. Show your athletes how to find it and interpret it.

Human nature will tell us that if a little bit is good, more must be better. You best believe that this applies to teenage athletes who just found their first bicep vein. It’s crucial to sit down with your athletes and discuss the pros and cons of supplements, along with appropriate usage. It’s as simple as going over how to find and read the label on the back of a supplement (this also applies to general nutrition). If an athlete takes four creatine pills instead of one, the excess will be secreted through their urine. Most young athletes don’t have tons of money to blow on supplements, so explaining the “expensive pee” concept can go a long way in convincing them to use it properly.

2. Purchase supplements that have been third-party tested and approved by NSF Sport.

NSF stands for National Sanitation Foundation. It is an independent, third-party organization that objectively tests dietary supplements. NSF Sport certification is the gold standard for third-party supplement testing. As mentioned earlier, the supplement industry is unregulated, meaning companies can claim whatever they want on their labels, and it will go unchecked. With the NSF Sport certification, you can be sure that whatever is stated on the label is accurate.

An NSF Sport certified supplement is tested for 290 banned substances and has been found to have accurate label information. NSF even goes a step further by inspecting the production process and facility cleanliness of the companies producing the supplements. In an unregulated industry, NSF serves as the lead third-party tester that ensures athletes and coaches know exactly what is being put into their bodies.

An Investment Worth Making

Out of the three energy systems, the phosphocreatine system is by far the simplest. While there is a small margin for improvement and a large genetic component to how powerful an athlete’s phosphocreatine system is, doing the necessary work to improve its abilities is well worth it.

If an athlete is working on their phosphocreatine abilities in the weight room, they’re also working on their max strength. If an athlete does phosphocreatine capacity work, they’re also working on their aerobic conditioning. Athletes who are taking creatine supplements will feel (and be) stronger and will pack on muscle mass.

All three of these examples are true “two birds with one stone” examples. Being able to produce maximal power outputs for longer periods can be the difference between being successful and falling short. Invest in the work and enjoy the various benefits.

References

Mustafina LJ, Naumov VA, Cieszczyk P, et al. “AGTR2gene polymorphism is associated with muscle fibre composition, athletic status and aerobic performance.” Experimental Physiology. 2014;99(8):1042–1052. https://doi.org/10.1113/expphysiol.2014.079335

Sharma K, Saini R, and Patil S. “A Systematic Review on the Emerging Role of Protein Powder.” International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science (IJRES). 2022;10(5):88–90.

Kreider RB. “Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations.” Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 2003;244:89–94.

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