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As the winter season approaches, so does the emergence of various illnesses (i.e., upper and lower respiratory infections) that are associated with gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. When faced with this type of disorder, athletes usually seek care from their family or team physicians, who often prescribe an antibiotic for the treatment of these bacterial-related infections. A familiar prescribed medication is the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics, which includes medicines such as Ciprofloxacin and Levaquin. When there is a preference for the prescribed fluoroquinolones, it appears that it stems from their excellent gastrointestinal absorption, superior tissue penetration, and broad-spectrum activity.

At the time of the athlete’s pre-season team physical or when presenting with illness, a medical evaluation is essential, including the athlete’s prescribed medication history from present and past illnesses, injuries, surgeries, pathologies, etc. The athlete’s prescribed medication history is an integral part of their medical profile and should be discussed during the time of any medical assessment. This is especially true of the athlete who has been prescribed a medication from the fluoroquinolone classification of antibiotics.

An athlete’s prescribed medication history is an integral part of their medical profile and should be discussed during the time of any medical assessment. Share on X

The athletic team rehabilitation staff, strength and conditioning (S&C) professionals, and sport coaches should all be made aware of the potential risks of prescribed fluoroquinolones such as Cipro and Levaquin with respect to both cause and potentiation of tendinopathy, which is described as the presentation of pain when associated with tendon loading¹. In recent years, medical professionals have a much-improved awareness and appreciation of the concerning association between fluoroquinolones and tendinopathy. However, I’ve noticed that our physical therapy facilities continue to receive referrals with active patients and athletes taking this classification of medication for their illness. This is also true of some of the recreational and competitive athletes who we train at our athletic performance training center.

The Achilles Tendon

The gastrocnemius and soleus (calf) muscles converge to form one strong band of fibrous tissue that emanates as the Achilles tendon at the distal aspect of the calf. The tendon then inserts distally into the posterior aspect of the calcaneus (image 2). The Achilles tendon is the largest and strongest tendon in the body. Its anatomical integrity is essential for not only activities of daily living (ADLs), but for ideal athletic performance as well. This tendon plays a critical role in the athlete’s elastic abilities, resulting in maximal propulsion (i.e., linear velocity, jump height, etc.), reactive competences, deceleration, and change of direction.

Twenty-five percent of all athletic injures, irrespective of the specific sport of participation or level of play, involve the foot and ankle.² Although ankle sprains are the most common foot and ankle classification injury, Achilles tendon ruptures represent a subset of athletic foot and ankle injuries that have potentially serious future implications with regard to the athlete’s future ability to return to play. It is important to note that an Achilles tendon rupture is a devastating injury (image 3), and it may often be career-ending.

It is important to note that an Achilles tendon rupture is a devastating injury, and it may often be career-ending. Share on X

For example, from 2009 to 2014, there were 80 reported Achilles tendon tears in National Football League (NFL) players with an overall return to play rate of 61.3%.³ It has also been reported that 79.4% of all NFL athletes return to play after an orthopedic surgical procedure; however, 72.5% return to play after an Achilles tendon repair, with an average recovery time of 375 + 130 days⁴. Those NFL athletes who returned to play had significant decreases in performance postoperative season 1 when compared with preinjury values.^3,4 This is not to insinuate that these Achilles tendon injuries were due to prescribed fluoroquinolones, but to express the significance of this type of injury.

Regardless of the sport of participation, the concern persists that Achilles tendon injuries may result in not only diminished athletic performance, but potential tragedy for an athlete’s career.

The past few decades have witnessed an increase in the number of Achilles tendon ruptures, which, unlike other tendon ruptures, are commonly associated with sports participation.^5–7 This increase in Achilles tendon injury has been attributed to an escalation in recreational sports participation by an increasingly sedentary population.⁵ However, elite athletes are also at increased risk of tendon rupture and tend to rupture their Achilles tendon earlier in life compared to non-elite athlete controls, due to the increased demand put on their tendons.⁶

Fluoroquinolones and the Achilles Tendon

Fluoroquinolones are an effective antibiotic that are well absorbed when taken orally and have an extended half-life; thus, dosing once or twice daily can be very effective.⁸ Fluoroquinolones display a high affinity for connective tissue, particularly in cartilage and bone. The first fluoroquinolone-associated tendinopathy was reported in 1983⁹, with many additional subsequent scientific studies demonstrating the concern for Achilles tendon pain and, at times, rupture. The most common presenting symptom of fluoroquinolone-associated tendinopathy is pain. This tendinopathy pain is usually of sudden onset and may be accompanied by acute signs of inflammation and swelling.¹⁰ Achilles tendon ruptures may be preceded by pain, but half of tendon ruptures have occurred without warning.¹¹

Scientific publications have also demonstrated the Achilles tendon is the principle tendon affected in 89.8% and 95% of cases of fluoroquinolone-related tendinopathy and rupture, respectively.^11,12 The high stress applied to this tendon due to its weight-bearing role is thought to be the foundation for the high prevalence of injury to this anatomical structure. Compared with the use of other prescribed antibiotics, the use of fluoroquinolones carries a 3.8-fold increased risk of Achilles tendinopathy.¹³ These related tendinopathy symptoms can be present within hours of the initiation of treatment and last up to six months after the cessation of treatment. Withdrawal from fluoroquinolones after the initial onset of tendon pain and inflammation does not immediately restore tendon integrity, as the affected tendon(s) can become symptomatic and still possibly rupture many months after the completion of treatment.

Compared with the use of other prescribed antibiotics, the use of fluoroquinolones carries a 3.8-fold increased risk of Achilles tendinopathy. Share on X

Over time, sustained scientific evidence continued to elevate the concern of the commonly administrated medications of the fluoroquinolone synthetic antibiotic drug class for increased risk of tendinopathy and possible tendon rupture, resulting in the eventual placement of a stated medication warning on the label itself (image 4).

Adverse Fluoroquinolone Consequences Are Not Limited to the Achilles Tendon

Although I have placed the emphasis of this discussion on the Achilles tendon, the adverse effects of fluoroquinolones have been reported in other tendons of the body as well. These include, but are not limited to:

• Peroneus brevis
• Patella tendon
• Adductor longus
• Rectus femoris
• Triceps brachii
• Finger and thumb flexor tendons
• Supraspinatus and subscapularis tendons of the rotator cuff
• Tendons of the hip

Recently, a published study investigated the effect of the use of fluoroquinolones in patients following arthroscopic rotator cuff repair of the shoulder.¹⁴ A total of 1,292 patients were prescribed fluoroquinolones within six months postoperative arthroscopic rotator cuff repair, and they were compared to 5,225 matched negative controls and 1,597 matched positive controls. The fluoroquinolones were prescribed to the 1,292 patients as follows:

• 442 patients within 2 months post-surgery.
• 433 patients within 2–4 months post-surgery.
• 417 patients within 4–6 months post-surgery.

The subsequent revision rate of rotator cuff surgery was found to be significantly higher in the patients prescribed fluoroquinolones within two months of surgery (6.1%) when compared to matched negative (2.2%) and positive controls (2.4%) (figure 1). There were no significant differences in the rate of revision arthroscopic rotator cuff repair when fluoroquinolones were prescribed to the patient at greater than two months post-surgery. The authors concluded that, “Early use of fluoroquinolones following rotator cuff repair was independently associated with significant increased rates of failure requiring revision rotator cuff repair.” 

Precautions in the Performance Enhancement Training and Rehabilitation of the Athlete Presenting with Illness

If the athlete has been prescribed a fluoroquinolone class of antibiotic for their present or past illness while participating in a performance enhancement training program for their sport of participation or during rehabilitation for a particular injury or pathology, there are apparent concerns that arise under these circumstances.

During the performance enhancement training of athletes, high levels of exercise intensity are to be avoided during weight room activity, plyometric training, and sprinting velocities. High-intensity and high-impact exercise performance correlates to high levels of tendon stress. Exercise execution also results in a tendon response, as the loading of tendons during vigorous athletic enhancement training and sport participation has been cited as the principal pathologic stimulus for tendinopathy¹. Special precautions are to be taken under these specific fluoroquinolone medication conditions to avoid the possible inducement of tendinopathy and perhaps even tendon rupture.

My anecdotal experiences have demonstrated that it doesn’t require relatively high levels of stress to induce a tendon injury when prescribed fluoroquinolones. Share on X

My anecdotal experiences have demonstrated that it does not require relatively high levels of stress to induce a tendon injury when prescribed fluoroquinolones. For example, one of my professional peers had completed a prescribed dosage of ciprofloxacin for an upper respiratory infection. Shortly after completing his medication, he was in the weight room performing the bench press exercise and, unfortunately, ruptured his pectoralis major tendon with a barbell weight of 185 pounds. He certainly didn’t perceive this barbell weight as high intensity, because the weight was programmed as a “warm-up” set intensity. However, this applied stress was undoubtedly ample enough to result in a tendon rupture.

Over the years, I have also rehabilitated recreational and competitive athletes diagnosed with fluoroquinolone-induced tendinopathy who, although they were cautioned to avoid aggressive exercise and/or physical activities, did so on their own accord and eventually experienced an Achilles tendon rupture.

Physical Rehabilitation for Tendinopathy

At the time of the acknowledgement (diagnosis) of the athlete’s tendinopathy, it is likely that physical rehabilitation will be recommended. There are rehabilitation professionals who approach the treatment of tendinopathy with an emphasis on eccentric exercise application. These rehabilitation treatment regimes in which the tendon is subjected to sustained physiologic load are popular in addressing tendinopathy¹⁵, as eccentric exercise performance has been reported to be 90% successful in active individuals or sport participation athletes with tendinopathy¹⁶, as well as the documented successful management of tendinopathy with the application of heavy loads¹⁷. Loading a tendon with eccentric exercise and/or heavy load may be appropriate for the treatment of tendinopathy, but it is not likely suitable for the care of those individuals with the distinct condition of fluoroquinolone-induced tendinopathy.

Loading a tendon with eccentric exercise and/or heavy load is likely not suitable for the care of athletes with the distinct condition of fluoroquinolone-induced tendinopathy. Share on X

Take Precautions When Prescribed Fluoroquinolones

The performance enhancement training of athletes, as well as the rehabilitation of various pathologies, often requires the appropriate application of aggressive high-intensity exercise execution. These applied intensities will not only stress a tendon, but they require a significant tendon response that is often reactive in nature upon the ground surface area. Athletes who present with illness or a history of illness should be medically assessed, including a review of all prescribed medications. The prescribing of fluoroquinolones may present the athlete with the risk of tendinopathy, as well as possible tendon rupture.

Special consideration and precautions should be taken during the application of the performance enhancement training and rehabilitation program design at the time of the prescribed fluoroquinolones and up to six months from the time of the athlete’s completion of the medication. When an athlete presents with winter illness, a discussion about possible alternative antibiotics excluded from the fluoroquinolone classification of medications is recommended.

References

1. Manfulli, N., Sharma, P., and Luscombe, K.L. “Achilles tendinopathy: aetiology and management.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 2004; 97(10):472–476.

2. Garrick, J.G. and Requa, R.K. “The epidemiology of foot and ankle injuries in sport.” Clinical Sports Medicine. 1988; 7(1):29–36.

3. Yang, J., Hodax, J.D., Machan, J.T., et al. “Factors Affecting Return to Play After Primary Achilles Tendon Tear: A Cohort of NFL Players.” Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2019; 7(3):1–8.

4. Mai, H.T., Alvarez, A.P., Freshman, R.D., et al. “The NFL Orthopaedic Surgery Outcomes Database (NO-SOD): The Effect of Common Orthopaedic Procedures on Football Careers.” American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2016; 44(9):2255–2262.

5. Möller, A., Astron, M., and Westlin, N. “Increasing incidence of Achilles tendon rupture.” Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica. 1996; 67(5):479–481.

6. Schepsis, A.A., Jones, H., and Haas, A.L. “Achilles tendon disorders in athletes.” American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2002; 30(2):287–305.

7. Kujala, U.M., Sarna, S., and Kaprio, J. “Cumulative incidence of Achilles tendon rupture and tendinopathy in male former elite athletes.” Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine. 2005; 15(3):133–135.

8. Oliphant, C.M. and Green, G.M. “Quinolones: a comprehensive review.” American Family Physician. 2002; 65(3):455–464.

9. Bailey, R.R., Kirk, J.A., and Peddie, B.A. “Norfloxacin-induced rheumatoid disease.” The New Zealand Medical Journal. 1983; 96(736):590.

10. Lewis, T.G. “A rare case of ciprofloxacin-induced bilateral rupture of the Achilles tendon.” BMJ Case Reports. 2009;2009 doi:10.1136/bcr.08.2008.0697.

11. Khaliq, Y. and Zhanel, G.G. “Fluoroquinolone-associated tendinopathy: a critical review of the literature.” Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2003; 36(11):1404–1410.

12. Akali, A.U. and Niranjan, N.S. “Management of bilateral Achilles tendon rupture associated with ciprofloxacin: a review and case presentation.” Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery. 2008; 61(7):830–834.

13. Chajed, P.N., Plit, M.L., Hopkins, P.M., Malouf, M.A., and Glanville, A.R. “Achilles tendon disease in lung transplant recipients: association with ciprofloxacin.” European Respiratory Journal. 2002; 19(3):469–471.

14. Cancienne, J.M., Brockmeier, S.F., Rodeo, S.A., Young, C., and Werner, B.C. “Early postoperative fluoroquinolone use is associated with an increased revision rate after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair.” Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 2017; 25(7): 2189–2195.

15. Khan, K.M. and Cook, J.L. “Overuse Tendon Injuries: Where Does the Pain Come From?” Sports Medicine and Arthroscopic Review. 2000; 8(1):17–31.

16. Fahstrom, M., Jonsson, P., Lorentzon, R., and Alfredson, H. “Chronic Achilles tendon pain treated with eccentric calf-muscle training.” Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy. 2003; 11(5):327–333.

17. Beyer, R., Kongsgaard, M., Hougs Kjær, B., et al. “Heavy Slow Resistance Versus Eccentric Training as Treatment for Achilles Tendinopathy: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” American Journal of Sports Medicine.2015; 43(7):1704–1711.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

There’s nothing like a well-oiled machine. When things run smoothly and the bumps are low, it seems like a more successful day. When you deal with clients, especially in a group setting, you’ll find that there are a number of questions that get asked repeatedly. After you answer the same question for the fifth time in 20 minutes, the light bulb should go off and the solution to that problem should be the next thing on your agenda. Imagine saving 10 minutes a day for the next 20 years because you solved that one little hiccup.

There are plenty of ways coaches try to save time and get more work done, but I’m not sure all of them make sense. Yes, of course you could pair your bench press with three other movements and save a few minutes, but what are you sacrificing by doing that? I can assure you that pairing a squat or deadlift with chin-ups and core drills will definitely save you some time, but it will also save you the hassle of becoming stronger. You can’t expect a great effort on a compound lift like a squat if you spend your rest period fatiguing the back and core muscles that will keep you rigid and locked in during the next squat set.

Instead of the conveyer belt quad sets that don’t help anyone, spend some time creating more efficient processes and use some life hacks to help you and your clients shave off a few minutes of nonsense every time they are in the gym. In this article, I will outline a few ways we at Exceed Sports Performance & Fitness try to combat the monotony of repetitive “hiccups.” Many of the concepts might not apply to you directly, but I would imagine the solutions could give you some ideas on how to disrupt your own problems in a similar way.

Save Yourself Hours with a Strip of Colored Tape

We have over 20 different types of bars in our facility, and, of course, they all have different weights. With bars ranging from 5 kilograms all the way to 82 pounds, I can fully understand why athletes get confused. Not only do they have trouble remembering how much a particular bar weighs, they often need confirmation on what bar is best suited for each movement.

A few years back, I decided it was time to solve this issue and create a better system. If you have experience with weight lifting, you know that each weight has a color associated with it. I piggybacked on that concept and created a bar tape system that instantly identifies a bar for its weight and function.

Use different colors of electrical tape to create a bar tape system that instantly identifies a bar for its weight and function, advises @ExceedSPF. Share on X

We bought a cheap pack of assorted electrical tape and added a small strip of colored tape to each barbell. Along with this, we created a small chart that we posted where the barbells are kept at different points across the gym that identifies the weight in kilograms and pounds and also gives the primary and secondary function of the bar. “Blue tape,” for example, lets the athlete know that the bar weighs 20 kilograms (44 pounds) and is primarily used for Olympic-style weightlifting and platform movements.

It’s not an easy task to describe or explain the different bars to people during a busy time of the day, but telling a client to “grab a blue-taped bar” is quick and rarely gets screwed up. If you have bars or other types of equipment with similar functions and appearance, do yourself a favor and make some identifying marks to save yourself a lot of time. This also makes it easier for the athletes or clients to navigate the facility.

Use Standard and Simple ‘Prep Series’

We have used the same general warm-up and field-work prep series for years now, and it has saved us countless amounts of time on a daily basis. Not only does this expedite the warm-up process, but it gives the athletes some skill sets to “own.” When we do our large group warm-ups, we have a specific movement list and order so that no one waits around between drills.

The athletes who have been around long enough could do this process in their sleep and that helps in a number of ways. First, it allows the coaches to talk with parents or prospective athletes who are just looking to see the process. Second, it holds the athletes accountable for the simple things and provides them with a system they can use off-site, at practice, at camps, or when they go off to college or pro teams. Having these systems down gives them confidence that they know how to get themselves prepared for lifts or field training. Lastly, it provides a set standard for movements that allow the athletes to improve and perfect their own patterns.

After our general prep, we use a consistent—though slightly varied at times—set of prep series to begin any field work. For deceleration day, we go through the same few drills before getting to the more advanced movements. Our main objective changes fairly regularly, but the prep drills do not. Doing the remedial work first allows athletes to “get their bearings” and reminds the body where and how to put that foot on the ground so when we start cranking it up, they have a good chance for success.

Similarly, in the weight room, for example, we try to work with the athletes to find an individualized but consistent “warm-up” protocol for their main lifts. Bench press, squat, or clean warm-up sets should be the same each lift for a number of reasons. It helps eliminate the “what do I do next” time lags, and, more importantly, it gives them a comparable “feel it out” to each lift. After enough time under the bar, they’ll use their warm-up sets to gauge where they’re at for the day. That biofeedback disappears when they have a different warm-up every time they’re in the gym.

If every time you train you have different flows, different movements, and complicated drills, you’ll waste time trying to explain everything and do a disservice to the athlete’s adaption. Share on X

If every time you train you have different flows, different movements, and complicated drills, you will not only waste a lot of time trying to explain everything, but you’ll be providing a disservice to the athlete’s adaption. It’s hard to improve without consistent practice and repetition.

Do the Math for Them

Unfortunately, the Imperial system of units makes understanding kilograms impossible for some clients. It just doesn’t click. We use pounds for everything except our weightlifting platforms, so that can be confusing as well. Although converting kilograms to pounds is a waste of time if you will be using kilograms the following week, and in the programs to come, it is still a priority for a large majority of athletes to convert the numbers. If you’ve used kilograms enough, you start to understand the conversion. Even memorizing your main weights can be helpful, but we wanted to make it a little easier for everyone.

I created a kilogram conversion chart equipped with color-coded diagrams. If you have “a red and a blue plate” (110 kg) on a men’s bar, you can simply find that picture on the poster and it will tell you the weight in both kilograms and pounds. We have a women’s side and a men’s side (color-coded yellow and blue, respectively) to take it one step further, and I recently added a section that labels the “change plates” as well.

Posters and wall graphics can be incredible teaching tools and time savers. Some clients don’t care about learning a thing; they just want mindless training. However, the vast majority like to see the why and how of what goes on, and something as simple as a 16” x 20” poster full of colored boxes can really make a difference for both the coach and client.

Keep Athletes Honest and Free Yourself Up with Interval Clocks

We use two clocks that run constantly. One runs concurrent with the actual time so that kids can use it to keep themselves on pace to finish their programs if they have to catch a ride home. It doesn’t feature an hour mark, just the minutes and seconds. This makes it perfect for rest periods, as well as timing certain drills like long isometric work, tendon training, or maybe their energy system work to finish.

The second clock we have been using more recently is a programmable interval clock by Swimnerd. It has a few features that make it a perfect addition to many school/team programs or facilities like ours. Of course, the most important part of an interval clock is the ability to program work and rest periods. It runs on a mobile app and can be set up to “practice” in a variety of different ways.

Something we use a lot of are 10-second/20-second intervals for many of our athletes in early phases of their program. The clock makes it easy to implement these, and the coach can focus on the movement or coaching rather than staring at the clock. The numbers are big and bright green and loud enough for everyone to see and hear from a good distance. Most athletes are good about putting in the effort to finish each rep on time, but the audible beep is an added incentive as well as a real indicator of pass or fail performances.

Besides its mobile app, the Swimnerd clock has a unique waterproof feature that allows you to bring it outside even in poor weather, says @ExceedSPF. Share on X

Besides the functionality of the mobile app, what sets the clock apart from most of Swimnerd’s competitors are the unique “swim features” it brings to the table. The fact that it was intended for swimming pools means it has a unique waterproof feature that allows you to bring it outside even in poor weather, which we get a lot of in the Northeast. You can literally hose this thing down and it’ll run without an issue.

On top of that, an electrical cord laid across a pool deck would cause some concern, as you might imagine. The Swimnerd clock can run on a rechargeable battery so that you can take it outside or far from any outlets. We have an exterior turf at our facility, and, in certain months, the athletes do much of their interval and conditioning work outside. This clock is a game changer and saves us the hassle of making the kids grab their phones or stopwatches.

Replace the Belt for Group Sprint Training

We have experimented with countless tools and equipment types in regard to resisted running. For more advanced clients and some of our higher-level athletes, we are fortunate enough to have a Vertimax Raptor on the wall, but for the majority of high school and college athletes, we use chains attached to belts by a long strap. It has always been a tricky thing to choose the right belt. The type and function of the belt are hard enough to get right, but it can be a nightmare to share belts between large groups of athletes, logistically speaking. Different sized athletes have trouble sharing the belts, and if you’ve ever tried to run with a loose belt, you know how annoying it can be. We usually have 3–5 different belts of varying sizes set up, but they don’t always match up to our clientele.

Every problem needs a solution, so we recently began experimenting with some alternative methods and ditched the belt. We began replacing the belt with the strap looped through itself to create a noose-like knot that can tighten and loosen quickly, and it fits everyone. Now when athlete 1 finishes their sprint, they can just open the loop and drop the belt, and athlete 2 can simply step in, cinch it up around their waist, and go. It has not only saved time messing with buckles and sizing complications, it also seems to be a more comfortable and “tight” feeling fit for many of the athletes. You luck out when your time-saving solutions double as better options.

Choose and Implement Your Technology Astutely

Using technology can be a blessing and a curse. If you’re lucky enough to have any, it can really make a world of difference in your programming and testing processes. We have three “tech-based” jump tools that have been invaluable to our facility. However, it’s not always easy to implement these tools in larger group settings. The Hawkin Dynamics force plates and Ergotest contact grid are two amazing pieces of equipment, and we’d have trouble replacing either at this point. We use our force plates with dozens of athletes per day, and the contact grid is a staple in all of our rehab and elite training protocols.

But during our larger high school groups, we have to rely on our Just Jump mats to handle a lot of the volume. The mats have a few settings we use regularly. However, different athletes are on different programs and use different settings all day long. One way to combat the issue is to buy multiple mats and keep each one for a different setting. Having two or three jump mats will allow droves of athletes to roll through their programs without having to waste time switching back and forth between “jump one time” and “jump four times” over and over.

If possible, I’d recommend having duplicates of all of your important tools that get used frequently, says @ExceedSPF. Share on X

If you’re lucky enough to have three jump mats or multiple tools in your arsenal, a simple and effective way of providing efficiency is designating each piece for a certain role. This concept applies to most equipment throughout the gym. When at all possible, I’d recommend having duplicates of all your important tools that get used frequently or you’d like to program across a broader spectrum of clientele.

Use Those Walls Wisely

I’ve already listed a couple posters (bar tape and weightlifting conversion charts) that have helped us save some time and answer repetitive questions, but we have taken our poster game to new heights in the past year. We created a massive template to help fill in some gaps, educate some interested clients, and give a clear direction to some of our progressions and systems. I’d imagine that our system won’t work for everyone, but you could create your own template to allow people a little autonomy and freedom to make some “informed” decisions when appropriate.

We have a template with specific programs based on the focus of the day or phase (speed/power, hypertrophy, so on), as well as exercise “plug and play” lists with some progressions and alternatives for problematic or provocative movements for certain people. Another poster has a number of complexes and medleys that are used by our adults or for GPP phases or extra work. We have an energy system poster that breaks down different protocols that focus on more specific energy systems and gives athletes ranges for their work and rest periods, as well as suggestions on how many reps/sets to do. We have a few other posters, such as a specific progression of “shuttles” we created a few years back. Lastly, we have a poster with warm-ups, prep series, mobility/flexibility drills, and core patterns that people can use to fill in the blanks. For more intermediate or advanced clients, I can write “push-up pattern” on the program, and they will be able to select an option from that section of the poster.

One of the times these posters are most useful is when off-site college or pro athlete clients come back for break—maybe only for a day or two—and need something to do. We don’t have time to write out an entire program, but we do have a poster with 40 “workout” options that can be modified to fit the needs of the athlete in seconds. “Do ‘Strength/Power #4’ and do 6×3 for your main lift” is an example of how quick and painless that logjam can be fixed.

Not only does this system help the clients, but it also allows the coaches to spend time creating and fine-tuning their systems. As you write and create, you’ll recognize things that work well or don’t work well, and it can be a good learning experience. It will also provide your assistants or interns with a deeper look into how you program and how you categorize and prioritize movements. Last, but not least, it can spark your memory and remind you of the forgotten drills of yesteryear.

Reward Your Clients with Responsibility

Right from the start, I set up a promotion system with T-shirts (colors) signifying levels of achievement or recognition. It is something I adopted from another gym at which I previously worked, but I changed the criteria to promote effort and achievement rather than how many times an athlete shows up and goes through the motions. It usually takes more than a year or two to reach the second level, Orange (and many more years to get to the third and fourth levels), but in this time the athlete will have had to earn their stripes and prove that they have an understanding of the system and have gained some independence. They’ll need to show proficiency in the basics and intermediate movements, as well as the capability of leading some warm-ups or helping younger and newer clients on occasion.

Not a day goes by where someone doesn’t ask, “When will I get my orange shirt?” or, even more absurd, “When will I get my black shirt?” We have four total levels, with black being the pinnacle, and we do not give any of our shirts out easily—just ask our clients. With this system, we have many athletes buying in and pursuing something other than just a few pounds on a lift or any other arbitrary milestone. It helps us create an environment where people want to show that they take their training seriously.

In terms of creating a “life hack,” it also denotes a hierarchy that allows us to rely on our promoted athletes to handle some of the remedial tasks, like answering a question about a particular movement or explaining how to turn on the jump mats or how much a bar weighs. (Although the answer to that question, as we all know now, should be, “refer to the poster please.”) These tasks are clearly easy enough for anyone who has spent more than a year in the gym consistently, and when I need to, I ask them to take on those small jobs.

Make It Work for You

Whether or not you use kilogram plates or have enough bars to create an issue of figuring out which one to use, there are many ways you can “hack” your facility to save everybody time and effort. Take a stroll through your facility and carry around a notepad for a day, jotting down the bottlenecks and logjams that pop up. That, to me, is all the incentive you’d need to try and create a solution to the problem.

Take a stroll through your facility and jot down the bottlenecks and logjams that pop up. This is all the incentive you should need to try to find a solution to the problem, says @ExceedSPF. Share on X

Hopefully, you can pull something useful out of these eight solutions we have found invaluable to our daily life in the trenches. I’m always looking for a better process or solution to even the most menial tasks. This list will evolve and grow larger over time. Feel free to help me out and send over your best life hacks that I may have missed.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

By Bob Alejo and Dr. Jordan Moon

I’m surprised, but not that much, that there is seldom any rhetoric or higher level of discussion about body composition. Granted, it’s all about sports performance results. But what about BETTER sports performance results? We can gain some insights on this by learning about norms. There’s a good amount of research on athletes that includes at least body weight, regardless of the purpose of the study. For some studies, body weight is crucial when scaling for strength and power. And, as we read more about running speed, we realize that mass is important to speed. Certainly, the engine producing that speed is important as well.

There are plenty of online photos showing “before” and “after” for athletes, as freshmen and then later, yet almost nothing showing “before” and “after” for lean mass, fat mass, and body composition changes. There is no argument that those physical changes could result in more lean tissue loss than necessary, which would certainly affect the efficacy of strength and power acquisition. Not taking body composition measurements during these transformations means that it is an all-out guess for caloric addition/restriction or protein intake. In addition to how much an athlete can squat, it would be great for practitioners to show body-weight-to-strength ratios, along with body composition information. Now that would be comprehensive! I know other coaches would love to see that.

Don’t kid yourself: Body weight and body composition matter! Here, as a follow-up to my last conversation on testing methods with body composition expert Dr. Jordan Moon, I ask him more questions about body composition for athletes.

Bob Alejo: What’s the general relationship between body composition and performance?

Does it even matter? Some would argue that it’s all about results, but that’s certainly a myopic view. How you obtain the information is probably more important than the results, of course. I’ve heard BOD POD testing horror stories: not testing for hydration, taking the test at different times of the day over a period, taking the test less than 24 hours after a hard workout. Sure, that’s no fault of the BOD POD—it just gives you a number—but, under those circumstances, you’d be better off getting your body composition guessed at the State Fair booth!

How often do you test? Both the method used and tracking over time can mean the difference between accurate and not accurate, within reasonable limitations. Most methods already have a standard of error, so there’s no use making it worse or making it so taking some tests overall is a waste of time. And remember, body comp is not just about performance, it’s about health!

Dr. Jordan Moon: In general, the simple answer is that “body composition is an apparent function of the physical task,” and the closer an athlete’s body composition is to the ideal body composition for their sport, the better their performance will be.¹

In general, the closer an athlete’s body composition is to the ideal body composition for their sport, the better their performance will be, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

Specifically, by looking at body composition differences between types of elite athletes, we can get an idea of optimal fat, lean, and total mass values for a sport and position. With more athletes now being measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), we can build a bigger database for professional, collegiate, and even youth athletes for all types of sports. Another advantage of looking at DXA data for optimal body composition comparisons is that you can look at lean and fat mass values of the arms, legs, and trunk, in addition to whole body. This allows for some unique comparisons between athletes. However, DXA manufacturers have not integrated athlete data or the capacity to compare measurements to other athletes into their software or reports. This limits the ability of athletes, coaches, trainers, nutritionists, physicians, etc., to make actionable decisions that help improve performance.

Fortunately, there are some new software programs/apps gaining traction that allow for the comparison of DXA data to other athletes. One such program is FitTrace, which allows you to:

• Track and report body composition over time.
• Provide access to results for nutritionists, trainers, coaches, etc.
• Compare with professional athletes by sport and position.

However, not all athletes or programs may have access to a DXA machine, which makes detailed and accurate comparisons to elite or pro athletes more complicated. There are some books and published articles that have data from elite athletes using other techniques such as underwater weighing, anthropometrics/skinfolds, and the BOD POD. However, the use of data from one method, such as underwater weighing, compared to another method, such as skinfolds, adds additional errors when comparing athlete data, and it may not allow you to make actionable decisions with confidence.

Another focus of body composition and performance should be on tracking changes over time. This concept is more accessible, as the only requirement is a reliable and valid measurement tool. In theory, as long as your method gives you correct measurements, you can use that data to determine potential improvements or decrements in performance. More importantly, tracking changes in fat, lean, and body mass allows for a quantifiable assessment of the success of a training and/or nutritional intervention. For example, if an athlete needs to lose body fat while preserving as much lean mass as possible, and they are following a strict off-season training and nutritional program, having accurate fat and lean mass measurements before and after the off-season is fundamental when assessing the athlete’s adherence to the program and/or the quality of the program.

Tracking changes in fat, lean, and body mass allows for a quantifiable assessment of the success of a training and/or nutritional intervention, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

Researchers and sports scientists are now focusing on identifying other relationships between performance and body composition. Some areas of current research on athletes and performance are directed toward body composition and injury risk, lean and body mass imbalances, lean/muscle mass loss after an injury, return to play after an injury, and optimal strength-to-lean-mass ratios for specific muscles and sports movements (bat swing, jumping, sprinting, etc.). The next several years are going to be very exciting. We will start to get a better picture of the direct relationship body composition has to overall performance and health in athletes.

Beyond the general idea of body composition being a function of a physical task, we are also becoming more aware of how specific body composition values, such as fat and lean mass, play a role in both performance and health. It’s intuitive that an offensive lineman requires a greater amount of body fat compared to other positions, because their task is to block heavy defensive linemen. The heavier they are, the easier it is to stop a defender, but there is also a need for speed and strength. Knowing the correct fat-to-lean ratio for optimal performance and strength is valuable here and also somewhat intuitive, but do you know the ideal ratios? You know you want a heavy, fast, and powerful lineman, but did you know offensive linemen in the NFL have 2.5 times more lean mass than fat mass? Compare this to wide receivers or defensive backs, who have a ratio of around seven.

Another well-documented finding is that the performance of speed and jumping athletes is directly related to their power-to-mass ratio. Those who can generate the most muscle power at the lightest body weight can run faster and jump higher, but this is also relatively intuitive. If two athletes have the same muscle power and one is slightly lighter, then that athlete can jump higher and run faster because they are moving less total body mass. The impact of body composition here is not only optimizing fat content to be low, but also optimizing muscle mass to be powerful without being too large, which can be altered by specific training and nutrition programs.

For distance runners, research has found that skinfold (fat) thicknesses in the lower body can predict 1,500-meter, 10,000-meter, and marathon times. Those with more lower body fat don’t run as fast and finish slower. Like sprinting and jumping athletes, distance runners can benefit from having optimal body-fat-to-lean-mass ratios (% fat). Also, when comparing the most elite sprinters and distance runners, there doesn’t appear to be any difference between fat values, which indicates that, at the elite level, all athletes for particular sports have almost identical body composition values.

What about body composition and injuries? Having the lowest possible body fat/weight for athletes who sprint, jump, or run moderate-to-long distances does appear to enhance performance, but there may also be a risk for more injuries and overall health concerns. Researchers have found that distance runners who have more muscle mass tend to have fewer stress fractures. Distances runners who have more muscle and less fat have better performances and are less likely to have fractures compared to similar runners with the same or lower body weight, but with less muscle and more fat. So, just having low body fat and a low body weight is not enough for runners to reduce injuries and perform at their best. Understanding the optimal lean mass and fat mass for the upper and lower body, as well as total body mass, is fundamental for the success of any training and nutritional programs for not only runners, but all athletes.

Understanding the optimal lean and fat mass for the upper and lower body, as well as total body mass, is vital for the success of any training & nutritional programs, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

Finally, there are several health-related and performance concerns for having too little body fat. This is a highly complicated area with several factors all impacting each other. In summary, lower-than-optimal body fat values can have just some of the following effects on an athlete:

• Unhealthy eating habits and malnutrition.
• Loss of energy and focus.
• Increased stress and impaired immune system.
• Abnormal hormone levels.
• Reproduction system problems (females).
• Reduced bone health and increased fracture risk (lower bone mass/density).

All of the above can significantly impact both performance and health, and they are specifically a concern for weight-sensitive athletes in sports such as:

• Gravitational: running, jumping, skiing, cycling, climbing, etc.
• Weight Class: wrestling, judo, boxing, martial arts, powerlifting, jockey, etc.
• Aesthetically Judged: bodybuilding, figure skating, diving, cheerleading, etc.

Body composition variables, such as lean and fat mass, and their relationship to athletic performance is highly dependent on the specific athlete, sport, and position, but also the athlete’s competition level/ability (recreational, collegiate, professional, etc.).

Bob Alejo: Should performance focus on body weight, fat loss, lean tissue gain, or body composition?

Dr. Jordan Moon: This is where research and application separate, and this is currently the largest gap in the field of body composition and performance. There are hundreds of great research papers and a recently published body composition book focusing on health and performance in exercise and sport. However, this information is not easily accessible for most athletes, coaches, trainers, sports scientists, nutritionists, physicians, etc.

Practitioners often look at body composition as something easy to do and utilize because of the simplicity and accessibility of measurements. However, over the last 15+ years, I have observed a significant lack of understanding and confidence from most practitioners when it comes to interpreting body composition data and using it in programming. What I see most often are practitioners simply looking at two variables, % fat and fat-free mass, and tracking changes to see if an athlete is losing fat, gaining muscle, losing muscle, or gaining fat.

Even with this basic approach, there are many practitioners who are still not sure what to do. However, this isn’t really their fault, as practitioners in the field don’t have the time or training to read hundreds of body composition research papers or interpret graduate-school-level textbooks to find actionable information that they can use for their athletes. So, what are their options, other than contacting researchers who work in this area?

As of now, the answer is to learn more about body composition, read the research and the books, and find the content you need to make informed decisions about your data and athletes. It’s a double-edged sword type of situation. There are very few expert practitioners who work with athletes and have a great handle on body composition and application. Most experts are researchers. There will be a good deal of work initially to understand everything, but if someone can solidify themselves as a true expert in the field by using scientifically supported interpretations of accurate data with developed protocols for training and nutritional interventions for athletes, they will be the leading edge of the sword, while carving a unique and needed position for themselves and others who follow.

Track body composition data often and with intention. Don’t just measure body composition because you can. Do it with purpose, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

As I stated earlier, there are some programs and apps that attempt to bridge this gap, but the actual creation and implementation of a program requires knowledge of body composition, as well as exercise training and/or nutrition. My simplest suggestion of what to focus on for performance and body composition includes the areas discussed earlier:

• • Compare your athletes to other athletes using published data and the same method used in the publication (article or book).1.
    • Create a training/nutritional program that will support a change in body composition to more closely match others in their sport or those who are the next level up (college, pro, etc.).

    2.

    Use caution when working with children and adolescents—that’s another discussion completely.

3. Utilize as much information as possible to compare. If you can get a DXA measurement, you can look at segmented (arms, legs, upper body, lower body) ratios of lean, fat, bone, and total mass, as well as utilize software/apps for easy comparisons, creating reports and graphs, and data management and sharing.

• • — Anthropometric measurements (skinfolds and circumferences) are also highly available for athlete comparison and you can take them from multiple locations around the body.

 

• — Limited data is available for athletes to compare themselves to other athletes using bioimpedance data, as well as having a wide range of machines and equations, making athlete comparisons questionable at best.

• • Track body composition data often and with intention. Don’t just measure body composition because you can. Do it with a purpose.1.
    • Sport-/athlete-specific transitional periods (pre-season, in-season, postseason, etc.).
      • — For example: Right before a season, mid-season, and right after a season.
        • • This can help identify any loss of lean or fat mass, typically observed due to highly competitive and energy-demanding activity. You can implement appropriate training and nutritional interventions to offset losses in lean and fat mass that may hinder performance.

     

2. You should measure at-risk athletes for low body fat often and interpret and share their results with caution.

• • — This is a highly sensitive subject for many athletes and using the wrong language and/or telling someone their results can increase their chances of developing an eating disorder and/or body image issue.

 

• — The lower limits for % fat depend on the methods used (DXA, skinfold, etc.), but the general acceptable lower limits are:
  • • Men: 1–9% fat
    • Women: 10–18% fatA.
      This is highly dependent on multiple factors and specific to each individual. You may have one athlete on the same team at the lower end and have no issues, while another athlete is closer to the higher end with multiple symptoms.

Bob Alejo: Can skinfolds be an accurate measure of fat loss or lean tissue gain? Personally, based on convenience and the error of measurements with poor protocols with other methods, I prefer skinfolds. At the least, I support performing skinfolds and perhaps one other test for sure. Changes in millimeters of thickness (mm) from test to test say something. Of course, good protocol makes it easier to discern what you are seeing.

Dr. Jordan Moon: The answer is yes and no. It all depends on the person conducting the measurements, the equipment, and the preparation of the athlete. Below are some guidelines when performing skinfold measurements:

• Use a quality caliper that is valid and reliable (calibrated and checked for calibration regularly).
• Use the same calipers every time for the same athlete.
• Measure the correct and exact same locations each time with the same approved technique.
  — This requires a trained technician (more on this later).

• Measure the athlete at the same time of day in the same conditions (before training, preferably).
  — If using body weight for any calculations (like fat-free mass), perform measurements with the athlete fasted in the morning and normally hydrated.

The biggest factor when it comes to getting accurate measurements for skinfolds is the training and quality of the person taking the measurements. The most comprehensive skinfold training is through The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry. However, the training is expensive, with limited availability. ISAK has a great training program if you are looking to compare your athletes to other athletes around the world and/or want to learn how to take circumferences and other anthropometric measurements in addition to skinfold measurements. However, you may not need it if you simply want to track changes in fat and lean mass. Using the ACSM standards is also sufficient.

The other issue when using skinfolds for tracking lean and fat changes is the equation used to convert skinfold thicknesses to fat and lean tissues. I like using raw skinfold data when tracking changes because the units are raw measurements in millimeters. There are athlete-specific equations if you are looking to compare your athletes to others, but you would need to find the paper or book with the normative data and see what equation you should use to compare athletes.

However, when it comes to tracking changes, I always recommend the Jackson and Pollock three- or seven-site equations^2,3 because they don’t use anything other than age and skinfold thickness to calculate % fat, so changes in body weight due to hydration do not impact the % fat values, but they will alter fat-free and fat mass values. Thus, if you are interested in fat mass and fat-free/lean mass, you need to understand body weight variability and try to control for normal hydration.

I recommend this link, which calculates the data for you using the Jackson and Pollock equations. However, you will need to follow the ACSM guidelines and know what sites to measure if you only measure three. I always recommend measuring all seven because you can look at regional changes in fat thickness while having more comprehensive calculations of % fat and other variables. Seven sites may represent a more accurate overall change in fat compared to just three.

Body water, which is the largest and most variable component in your body, often causes changes in body mass and lean mass throughout the day and from day to day, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

Finally, skinfold measurements only represent subcutaneous fat, which is the fat under your skin that accounts for most of your total body fat. Lean tissue changes are not directly measured; instead, they are indirectly measured by subtracting your fat mass from your body weight. Therefore, detecting changes in fat may be more accurate than changes in lean mass. Lean mass also includes body water, which is the largest and most variable component in your body and often causes changes in body mass and lean mass throughout the day and from day to day.

Bob Alejo: Is there any value in using the body mass index (BMI) for athletes? Look, sometimes folks don’t fit in the BOD POD, and they can’t be skinfold tested. So, BMI might be your next choice. Keep in mind that you should most likely evaluate other measures (speed, strength, power, team/position athletic measure comparisons) because, as you will see, BMI is not what it’s cracked up to be for athletes.

Dr. Jordan Moon: Since BMI is just the mathematical expression of the proportions of height and weight, it doesn’t tell us anything about actual body composition, such as fat or lean tissue masses. It is IMPOSSIBLE for you to estimate fat or muscle mass accurately using only height and weight. The problem is that BMI is used to classify “normal” people as being underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese. This is an issue for many athletes because they typically have larger lean mass values, which increases their total mass and, consequently, their BMI.

BMI is just the mathematical expression of the proportions of height and weight—it doesn’t tell us anything about actual body composition, such as fat or lean tissue masses, says @DrJordanMoon. Share on X

For example, all pro bodybuilders are considered obese, or even morbidly obese, due to their increased muscle mass, even though they have around 5% body fat when competing. Nearly all strength and power athletes have elevated BMIs that classify them as being overweight or obese because they have more lean mass than the “normal” population. Therefore, you should never use BMI to classify men or women who have greater than average muscle mass as being “overweight” or “obese” in terms of excessive body fat. In other words, if someone has ever regularly strength-trained, the BMI classification as the World Health Organization (WHO) defines it (below) is no longer applicable.

In agreement with this concept, the WHO states: “BMI values are age-independent and the same for both sexes. However, BMI may not correspond to the same degree of fatness in different populations due, in part, to different body proportions.”

Theoretically, BMI should represent body fatness, but only in nonathletes. Numerous research studies have proven this point by showing that BMI is a poor predictor of actual fat in athletes. So, is there any use for BMI then?

The WHO claims that: “The health risks associated with increasing BMI are continuous, and the interpretation of the BMI grading in relation to risk may differ for different populations.” Meaning, we still don’t know how BMI relates to health, but a higher BMI could increase health risks. Are athletes with higher BMI due to more lean mass (not fat) at a greater risk for poor health and disease? Is it not just about too much fat, but too much total mass, regardless of the tissue?

Research actually shows that the lowest (all-cause) risk of mortality (death) rate is in people with a BMI between 25 and 30, who are considered “overweight.” Research also indicates that cardiovascular disease risks are lower in those with a BMI between 25 and 30.

Research has even shown that a little extra fat is helpful. A case in point: During a fall, extra fat offers more protection for your bones. Additionally, research has found that individuals with a little more fat may heal faster after surgery and are less likely to get infections. An article in 2010 found that when controlling for health behaviors and sociodemographic factors, both overweight and Class I obesity reduced the relative risks (RRs) of death compared to a BMI of 18.5–24.9. There are many more articles that support these findings, but also studies that suggest an increase in mortality in people with a BMI under 20 and over 24.9.

So, what does this mean for athletes? For those with BMIs 20–29.9, we can’t really make a definitive conclusion about health and mortality since the data is not in agreement even in a “normal” population (nonathletes). So, it’s safe to say that athletes who have slightly more lean mass than normal people with BMIs in the “overweight” range shouldn’t worry about increased health risks, including cardiovascular disease. Still, research suggests that health risks associated with BMIs are nonlinear, meaning that deaths occur much more rapidly at both lower and higher BMIs (under 20 and over 30), implying a relationship between health and mortality and being obese and underweight. As stated earlier, many strength and power athletes have a BMI over 30.

However, there isn’t enough evidence or data using accurate body fat measurements along with mortality and health data in a normal or athlete population to determine if a BMI over 25, or over 30, increases someone’s health risk, regardless of their BMI being high due to either muscle or fat. Simply put, too much fat or too much muscle could lead to a greater health risk, but we really don’t know for sure because we don’t have accurate body fat and lean mass data along with health and mortality data in any population. With that said, there are known risks of being large, regardless of the mass being fat or muscle.

Sleep apnea, specifically “obstructive sleep apnea,” is a potentially fatal condition that can be caused by too much upper body mass (fat or lean). The larger mass in the neck and trunk puts more pressure on the airway and lungs, and it can prevent big athletes from getting a good night’s sleep and the oxygen their body needs to recover. Other symptoms can include fatigue, high blood pressure and other cardiovascular issues, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, medication and surgery complications, etc. Fortunately, larger athletes can reduce sleep apnea (and related symptoms) by using a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine.

Several, if not all, elite strongman athletes use CPAP machines. These athletes typically weigh well over 300 pounds, with many weighing in at 400 pounds or more. Even at a height of 6’9”, someone weighing 400 pounds will have a BMI of 43, which is Class III obesity, regardless of their body fat. BMI alone, in this case, could be useful for identifying athletes who may benefit from using a CPAP at night. I suggest using a BMI of >30 as a good starting point to begin watching for sleep apnea. For athletes with BMIs over 35, I would consider consulting with their doctors and having them use a CPAP at night, and both their health and performance could improve.

The use of BMI alone for athletes with low amounts of lean mass and body fat could serve as an easier way to track changes because you only need to measure height once and body weight. Share on X

Another suggested application for BMI in athletes would be for those who have lower amounts of lean mass and are at risk for low body fat, such as endurance athletes. As stated earlier, because there are greater health risks in these athletes, it is important to monitor their body composition. The use of BMI alone could serve as an easier way to track changes in these athletes because you only need to measure height once (if fully grown) and body weight.

Using BMI here could be valuable, but you are only looking at changes in body mass, so is there really an added benefit in calculating BMI? I would say yes, as several research studies looking at endurance athletes, from recreational to elite, have reported average BMI values no less than 19 for men or women. Therefore, I suggest for those at-risk athletes, as mentioned earlier, calculating BMI and using a low cutoff of 19 could serve as a simple and early detector for possible low body fat or lean mass.

If you need one, I recommend this online BMI calculator.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Moon, J.R., Tobkin, S.E., Costa, P.B., et al. “Validity of the BOD POD for assessing body composition in athletic high school boys.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2008; 22(1): 263–268.

2. Jackson, A.S. and Pollock, M.L. “Generalized equations for predicting body density of men.” British Journal of Nutrition. 1978; 40: 497–504.

3. Jackson, A.S., Pollock, M.L., and Ward, A. “Generalized equations for predicting body density of women.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1980; 12: 175–182.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Dr. Moon is an experienced researcher and advisor in the field of human body composition analysis and sports supplements. He has presented over 50 lectures at multiple scientific conferences and events both nationally and internationally, and has published more than 140 research articles and abstracts in dozens of journals. Additionally, Dr. Moon has written a book chapter and published a book in the areas of sports nutrition, supplements, exercise science, body composition, body water, and changes specific to age, fitness level, and type of athlete. Dr. Moon is also a co-founder and the Chief Science Officer at FitTrace.com, a body composition management and analysis app. He currently holds faculty positions at Concordia University Chicago and the United States Sports Academy.

In our current era of year-round sports, strength coaches are often asked about sport-specific training, and young athletes are inundated with the concept of sport specificity at an early age. Therefore, here is the question that we ask sport coaches who are curious about sport specificity: If the athletes play that sport year-round, why would we train those exact same repeated movement patterns? Inevitably, athletes will break down from continued overuse. Sport-specific training contributes to that overuse—so why do it?

Upon returning to the high school weight room almost seven years ago, I was somewhat uneducated about the state of year-round play. I knew year-round play existed, and I was aware of the nature of injuries associated with sport—particularly ACL injuries and shoulder injuries that plagued incoming freshmen at the collegiate level. I was also aware of athletes’ various training backgrounds, which range from no training to overtraining and everything in between.

When I was hired at Dorman High School, I had an idea of how I wanted to train my athletes—I wanted to follow the Keep It Simple and Safe (KISS) principle. I am a firm believer that the more we can develop our athletes with less complex methods, the greater the opportunity for adaptation and development down the road (with less likelihood of injury). We continually strive to develop a foundation of strength and power following the KISS method. There are multiple proven ways to train athletes, and I personally do not believe one way works better than others. For every program that does it one way and has success, there are other programs that do it completely the opposite way and have comparable success.

The more we can develop our athletes with less complex methods, the greater the opportunity for adaptation and development down the road (with less likelihood of injury). Share on X

With that said, we do not implement velocity-based training (VBT), accommodating resistance, or Olympic lifts outside of the power clean/hang clean and its variations. We also do not progress our athletes past what we term “Block 2.” In figure 1 below, you can see a guideline for how we progress through our quadrennial plan for our athletes. The table illustrates that football players are on a faster timeline compared to other athletes—this is only due to the commitment to training at an earlier age. Our goal is to have a commitment from all sports and athletes at an earlier age, and we believe we will accomplish that goal in time.

I want to be clear that just because programs utilize certain training modalities or progress their athletes differently, it does not mean they are wrong. Training programs that work are programs that the strength coach believes in and can create buy-in for from their athletes. How can a coach create buy-in if they have nothing vested in their own training philosophy?

Joe Kenn’s Tier System: Key Components and Functions

My programming philosophy is rooted in Joe Kenn’s Tier System—Athletic-Based Strength Training. Oftentimes, discussions about sport specificity lead to our philosophy here at Dorman—we program “athlete” specific. This simply means that we program to train athletes, not the sport. We train our athletes in a uniform manner through the Tier System.

Coach Kenn defines five key components of athletic-based strength training within the Tier System:¹

• Training movements rather than body parts
• Whole-body training sessions versus split training sessions
• Explosive versus nonexplosive movements
• Variety
• Tempo

While all five components are essential in the process of designing a tier program, when considering uniformed training for athletes, coaches must remember to train movements and implement whole-body training sessions.

The majority of sports are ground-based, meaning sport is played with feet on the ground. The Tier System is designed with ground-based sport in mind. The majority of exercises programmed should be ground-based, where athletes stand on their feet¹. Ground-based exercises are typically multi-joint movements, as are most athletic movements. Sport in general is considered to utilize the entire body. The Tier System structure is centered on whole-body training sessions while emphasizing multi-joint movements. Movements are divided into three separate categories: total body movements, lower body movements, and upper body movements.

Without going into great detail, the Tier System has four main functions:¹

1. Rotate the order of exercise based on movement.
2. Implement a variety of movements to train in numerous planes within a microcycle.
3. Prioritize movements based on big movements and functional movements.
4. Control volume by exercise order and emphasis on specific strength developed.

Below, you can see the general layout of a 3×5 tier system—3×5 meaning three days per week with five tiers. The table shows that each training session is a whole-body training session. The Tier System, at its core, represents uniformity in training. Every group or athlete that trains in the weight room follows a Tier System program—typically the same Tier System program. However, the uniqueness of the Tier System allows for exercise variations in each tier while continuing to train multiple athletes in a uniform manner.

Variations could be needed due to regressions, injuries, or sport seasons. Take, for example, if we are on Session T, Tier 1 (typically a power clean), and an athlete has a breakdown in technique on the first pull. Within the same group of athletes, we can regress the individual athlete to a total body variation (trap bar, shrug pull, etc.) without altering the Tier 1 rotation. Most importantly, we still train a total body movement.

Creating an exercise pool is an important aspect of the Tier System that allows the strength coach to substitute or vary exercises in each tier. An exercise pool places exercises into each category of total, lower, or upper exercise and allows for variety in programming.

Where to Begin?

With most things, a coach has to decide where to start. My introduction to the Tier System began in the fall of 2007, when I visited Coach Kenn at Arizona State. Initially, I planned to absorb as much as possible about the Tier System (which I did), but I was also introduced to Block Zero. The concepts of Block Zero made sense to me and I have been using it since 2007.

The high school setting presents a perfect opportunity to impact the development of young athletes. We believe that development starts with Block Zero, says @DormanStrength. Share on X

The high school setting presents a perfect opportunity to impact the development of young athletes. It’s our belief that development starts with Block Zero. Therefore, we expose all of our athletes who train under the supervision of the strength staff at Dorman to Block Zero. What is Block Zero? It is an introductory strength training program designed to lay the foundation for an athlete’s future training. Block Zero assumes that the athlete has a training age of ZERO in YOUR program.

As presented by Coach Kenn, the Block Zero daily setup follows a four-part design targeting athletic position, jumping mechanics, stabilization, and relative strength:²

1. Athletic position – the foundation for a large portion of future movements: jumping, landing, squatting, any type of hip hinge.
2. Jumping mechanics – emphasized early to promote mastery of the power position and landing position prior to plyometric training. We have found that the mastery of jumping and landing mechanics has resoundingly positive effects on the early stages of teaching the power clean.
3. Stabilization – built through the programming of isometric holds.
4. Relative strength – developed through the use of bodyweight exercises and isometric holds.

Some key points of emphasis are athletic position and the development of relative strength. As previously stated, athletic position serves as the foundation of Block Zero. It is our belief that, through athletic position, athletes will master hip hinge, learn to apply and absorb force, connect the dots between body position and injury prevention, and draw awareness to the posterior chain. When it comes to young athletes, it is our contention that an athlete who cannot master the athletic position cannot safely land a jump. Through the implementation of Block Zero with previously untrained female athletes, we found great success in the improvement of relative strength and dynamic knee valgus³.

Athletic position serves as the foundation of Block Zero. Through athletic position, athletes master hip hinge, learn to apply and absorb force, and more, says @DormanStrength. Share on X

We typically begin each Block Zero introduction to our athletes discussing injuries and gymnastics. Our goal is to have our athletes understand the importance of relative strength through comparison to some of the pound-for-pound strongest athletes in the world! The use of isometric holds to develop strength is supported by the use of the isometric flex arm hang and chin-up as measures of relative upper body strength by the FitnessGram and the United States Military.⁴ Isometric core holds have been used as a measure of core strength and isometric contractions have been used to measure hip adduction and abduction strength.⁵

Where Does Uniformity Come In with Block Zero?

The design of Block Zero displays uniformity—what young athlete does not need relative strength, jumping mechanics, stabilization, and development of the posterior chain? So, we implement Block Zero with ALL newcomers to our program.

At Dorman, we have found that in middle school, athletes still often play multiple sports; they haven’t chosen one specific sport yet. We start our eighth-grade football players in the spring semester before their ninth-grade year, but this covers a large number of our male athlete population. Our eighth-grade volleyball girls start in May before their ninth-grade year. During the summer, our numbers continue to increase with a female-only Block Zero group that consists of volleyball, basketball, and softball.

After two months of Block Zero with our eighth-grade boys’ groups, we progress them through the summer into our Block Zero intensification phase. Our girls’ groups continue to push through Block Zero for the summer, largely due to the amount of playing that our volleyball girls and basketball girls do during the summer months. We also introduce our boys’ baseball athletes to Block Zero during the summer months. As we progress into the school year, a large number of our freshman athletes are enrolled into our Freshman PE-S (PE Sport) classes, which they either take in the fall or spring semesters.

Freshman PE-S Classes (But Not Freshman Football)

We offer three Freshman PE-S classes that shuttle to our main campus weight room every day. Each semester, the new crop of freshman athletes begins with six weeks of Block Zero training. I am a staunch believer in the “slow cooker” approach when it comes to training young athletes. Some of our ninth-gradestudents in the fall semesters go through Block Zero during the summer months; however, following the slow cooker approach, they remediate for six weeks with the remainder of the class for six weeks.

As the numbers in our Freshman PE-S classes have continued to grow over the last six-plus years, more and more athletes are exposed to Block Zero. Various sports are represented in our Freshman PE-S classes—wrestling, boys and girls golf, boys and girls soccer, cheerleading, baseball, softball, volleyball, boys and girls lacrosse, boys and girls cross country, boys and girls swim, boys and girls basketball. The number of athletes in our classes is one reason we train in a uniform manner.

We also progress our athletes out of Block Zero together. After our initial Block Zero cycle, we progress into our Block Zero Intensification phase, where we begin to implement external loads on the athletes. We also continue to implement Block Zero concepts for reinforcement as we progress to more advanced movements.

During the Block Zero Intensification phase, we introduce the Tier System to our freshman athletes in a uniform manner—all athletes do the same exercises. Progressing from Block Zero, we want to build on the concepts of applying/absorbing force and developing the posterior chain. Therefore, our programming should reflect these concepts. As you can see below, we follow a true Tier System setup for our Block Zero Intensification phase with our Freshman PE-S classes: Day 1 is Session T, Day 2 is Session L, and Day 3 is Session U.

We follow a four-week cycle before we introduce the barbell to our athletes. The goal each semester is to complete a 5RM of a front squat, trap bar deadlift, and overhead press during the last week of the semester. Throughout each cycle, we continue to implement Block Zero concepts—stabilization, jumping mechanics, and relative strength.

The beauty of the Tier System is it allows us to use regressions with athletes who may need more work with certain movements, says @DormanStrength. Share on X

The beauty of the Tier System is it allows us to use regressions with athletes who may need more work with certain movements. For example, in a group of three: Athlete #1 will do a goblet squat, Athlete #2 will do a front plank, and Athlete #3 will do band abduction. If Athlete #3 rotates to goblet squat but has a drop in technique, we can simply do a banded bodyweight squat to a box and still fall into the Tier System rotation.

High School PE-S Classes

Our high school PE-S classes are set up a couple of different ways. First, any coach who is a PE teacher has the opportunity to have their sport in the PE-S class. For sports that do not have a coach as a PE teacher, the athletes are placed into PE-S classes with various athletes. In our non-football/basketball PE-S classes, we have 60+ athletes with baseball, softball, swimming, cheerleading, lacrosse, soccer, golf, wrestling, volleyball, and cross country represented. The football/basketball PE-S class is set up separately, due to the volume of athletes, with 100+ total. We also have a freshman and junior varsity football PE-S class—as previously stated, I will discuss how we set up our non-football/basketball PE-S classes with the Tier System.

We have a few multisport athletes, but at Dorman, the multisport athlete is almost nonexistent. For this reason, we use a uniform modified Tier System design in our PE-S classes. We lift four days a week—Monday (Session T), Tuesday (auxiliary day), Wednesday (Session L), and Thursday (Session U). We also incorporate two days of speed development and two days of conditioning. We develop speed on Session T and Session L days prior to training. We do conditioning on auxiliary and Session U days. Fridays are a free play day for our athletes.

This design is a classic example of doing what works. The Tier System is designed for a three-day setup, but a three-day setup will not work in our current class structure. With 90-minute classes (about 1 hour to 1 hour 10 minutes of training time), 90 days a semester, and no sport coach, training can become long and monotonous. We also modify from a 3×5 tier system setup to a 3×4 system where we treat the fourth tier as a giant set with extra posterior chain work.

After School/Before School Training

For teams/athletes that are not in our PE-S classes, we offer training two days per week before or after school. Our before/after school training follows a 3×2 tier system design. We incorporate speed development for off-season teams prior to training. Due to the nature of sport being ground-based, we eliminate Session U and utilize Session T and Session L for our 3×2 setup.

Continuous Training for Success

We firmly believe that we should not rush the development of a high school athlete. That does not mean that we hold athletes back at the high school level with uniform training, less complex methods, or non-sport-specific training. Rather, the opposite is true—athletes continue to train through pushing, pulling, squatting, jumping, pressing, sprinting, and agility, which sets them up for success on the field or court.

We firmly believe that we shouldn’t rush the development of a high school athlete. That doesn’t mean that we hold athletes back with uniform training, says @DormanStrength. Share on X

Reinforcing Block Zero concepts throughout an athlete’s high school training career helps them continue to develop relative strength, stabilization, and posterior chain strength. If we hold true to this type of programming, ALL of our athletes will be prepared for the physical demands of ANY sport.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Kenn, J. (2003). The Coach’s Strength Training Playbook. Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.

2. Kenn, J. (2016). “Block Zero Concept: How to Develop Young Athletes.” Elite Athletic Development Seminar. United States: Robertson Training Systems.

3. Cash, E. (2018). The Effect of an Introductory Strength Training Program on ACL Injury Risk Factors. University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC.

4. Clemons, J.M., Duncan, C.A., Blanchard, O.E., Gatch, W.H., Hollander, D.B., and Doucet, J.L. (2004). “Relationships between the flexed-arm hang and select measures of muscular fitness.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 18(3), 630–6.

5. Earle, J. and Hoch, A. (2011). “A proximal strengthening program improves pain, function, and biomechanics in women with patellofemoral pain syndrome.” The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(1), 154–163.

It’s a simple truth—injury is the nemesis of any elite athlete and training can cause injury. The coach’s dilemma is finding ways to train that improve game day performance while making sure game day actually happens.

Nowhere is this truer than in boxing. You may get one shot to put your career on a new level by fighting someone who far outranks you. You must endure rounds and rounds of sparring… with each sparring partner thinking it’s them who should be getting the big break. One cut, one concussion, one sprained hand or wrist, and it’s over.

The coach’s dilemma is finding ways to train that improve game day performance while making sure game day actually happens. Consider mittwork. Share on X

For team sports, there’s a depth chart for a reason—if your thumb needs healing, your teammates have you covered. Ask Drew Brees. But in individual sports like boxing, tennis, and golf, it’s just you. And in all the other individual sports, your training partners are not actively trying to put you on the injured reserve list. So, boxing trainers had to come up with a way to train and keep boxers sharp while at the same time minimizing injury risk.

Enter mittwork.

Simply put, mittwork is the presentation of punching targets and threats to a trainee in a given order, at a given speed, for a given duration of time. The word “given” here is important. The trainer controls all the variables: which combination of targets and threats, at what speed, and for what duration. And further, there is a divide in mittwork styles—either choreographed or what I call “fight style” mitts.

Choreographed mittwork is a scripted interaction. The trainer and the fighter agree in advance what will happen. The instruction is, “You are going to slip an oncoming right and counter with left hook, then throw a right cross, then roll out right and finish with a double jab to cover your tracks,” all starting on “Go!” Those choreographed combinations progress in complexity and duration as athletes get better and better at the boxing movements. You can start with an A-block of 2–4 punch/defensive combos, then add another block B, then C, then put them all together—ABC, BCA, AAC—until you fill an entire three-minute round with choreographed movement. There are literally thousands of combinations, blocks, and workouts that trainers can construct, limited only by their imagination and the gas in the athlete’s tank.

The other side of the mittwork spectrum is the “fight style” mitts. With this style, the fighter more or less treats you like an opponent. The bell rings, and you square off like opponents. The fighter does not know what the sequence will be: They have to react to what you present as you present it. The trainer presents the mitt in a certain way that means “throw a right uppercut” or a jab, or hook—they call for each punch either verbally (at the beginning) or by a unique position of the mitt, like a special sign language. The fighter/trainee has to use their eyes and ears to react and hit the targets as they are sequenced in front of them.

It’s the same with defensive moves. The trainer can force defensive moves by “throwing” punches, too, with the pad. Forcing defensive moves is the reason mittwork is a significant training upgrade over just hitting a heavy bag or a speed bag. A trainer with mitts fights back!

The choreographed mittwork is very suitable for beginners, elite athlete or not. The choreographed work is critical to establishing good boxing technique. With choreographed mittwork, you can slow down the speed to make sure feet, legs, core, and shoulders coordinate to deliver the most punch power with the minimum counterpunch exposure. Step by step, you can increase the speed of combinations as the trainee better understands the moves. I literally say, “Okay, we’re doing this one at 30% speed, then 60%, then 100%,” and see if the wheels fall off once we get to fight speed. If they do, we go back down the speed scale to try building up again.

Pro trainers who work with their pro fighters, especially for a long time, know the routines. They make choreographed work look exactly like fight-style because there’s no difference in speed or smoothness. But it takes years of practice to get that smooth, and it’s something to aspire to. Just google “mittwork” and “Canelo” to see some of the best mittwork there is to see.

Low Injury Risk – High-Intensity Cardio

So why should you train your elite athlete using mittwork? When is it a good idea?

At its core, mittwork is a full-body workout that is easy on the joints. Its intensity is up to the athlete and the trainer pushing. Typical fitness punching on a heavy bag burns 350–500 calories an hour. Sparring, on the other hand, can burn 800 calories an hour. Intensive mittwork that mimics sparring can get you closer to that 800/hour rate and certainly north of 500/hour.

At its core, mittwork is a full-body workout that’s easy on the joints. It can get you close to the calorie burn of sparring without the injury risk. Share on X

But what about injury risk? Certainly, you don’t want your elite athlete sparring, but mittwork can get you close to the calorie burn without that injury risk. Mittwork requires lots of movement with feet and hands, but the movements are quick and small relative to jumping 40” to dunk, running up the field, or making a diving catch. These smaller movements put emphasis on the muscular system to break and turn and drive, as opposed to the longer range of motion developed in other training regimens that puts more stress on joints and skeletal systems. Think of something like CrossFit with plyo box jump squats. We get wounded refugees from CrossFit programs in our gym often. They want all the cardio, but their joints are damaged, so mittwork is a great option.

Mittwork is especially helpful with larger, elite athletes whose bouncing body mass puts extraordinary stress on joints. How exactly do you build the cardio capacity of a 290-pound lineman without running him and tearing up his knees? You can put him on the elliptical, in the pool, on a bike, in a Pilates class…. There are low-impact options, but my argument is there are none as fun and engaging as mittwork.

It’s never the same thing over and over again (if the trainer does their job). And something different happens when intense cardio is the by-product of mittwork instead of the sole objective of these other types of workouts. People do more of it because the brain focuses on getting the combinations right and not on the pain from lactic acid build-up or burning lungs screaming for more oxygen. Everyone is surprised how fast the hour goes, even if they are completely gassed out.

One key element for ensuring that the intensity level improves is tracking punch count. Most punch counters are simple accelerometers strapped into the fighter’s gloves. This method only counts punches, and if you let this metric drive your workouts, defense goes out the window. I take it a step further and use a different metric of boxer work rate (BWR), which is a kind of punch count plus defensive blocks. Defensive moves can take as much energy as punches. I prefer the punch counter on the mitts the trainer uses, which then picks up the punches, the blocks, and parries, or the mitt “punches” that get through. As long as the mitt has an abrupt stop (quickly decelerates), that accelerometer reading peaks and a “punch” is counted.

A beginning boxer work rate is around 100 for a three-minute round, 200 counts is intermediate, and 300 and above is really moving. If you can string together five three-minute rounds with a work rate over 300, those lungs will scream for oxygen (for the trainer too!).

Improving Visual Reaction Time (VRT)

Did you ever wonder why, according to a CNN.com article, 85% of NBA players are gamers? Sure, it helps them relax after basketball games, but it also helps to keep them sharp. Video game play, especially fast-moving action games like Halo and Call of Duty, has been shown to improve cognitive function, including increasing visual processing speed and visual reaction times and sifting through task-irrelevant distractors. These improvements have been observed in non-game players who have undergone as little as 10 hours of training!^1,2

Think about what mittwork is. It’s a video game with consequences. In boxing, it takes .06 of a second to get hit in the face, at least by pro Chad Dawson. Mittwork coming from trainers may not have that top-end hand speed, but even at half that speed and in rapid succession, the athlete must decide what the threat is, react defensively, and then strike a target while it’s available before the next threat comes. Training an athlete to avoid that oncoming threat in such a way as to be able to respond with a counterpunch will tax and improve the motor skills of even the best athlete.

Here’s a case in point. A few years ago, a Maserati pulled up to the gym and out came a small but fit man inquiring about mittwork drills. I said, “Get dressed,” and in five minutes, this gentleman came back, clearly ripped. We slowly worked on the basics over the next hour. I knew the hand speed was there, but I had to get him to relax to find it. We finished that first day and I asked him his name. “Brandin, Brandin Cooks.” He explained he was a wide receiver, and he wanted boxing mittwork to help him parry the cornerback’s hand-checking that slows his release, and to gain more yards after the catch.

We worked for about a month before his training camp started. By the time he left, his boxing hand speed and visual reaction time were blistering. I don’t have a study to show what impact the mittwork had on his football skills, but he’s the starting deep-threat receiver for the Super Bowl-bound LA Rams and currently ranks #22 in total yards in the 2019–20 season.

Improved Agility

The #1 reason other coaches refer athletes to boxing coaches is to improve footwork. Footwork is everything in boxing. You may have the hardest punch or the fastest punch, but if you can’t get within range and position to throw those punches and then get back out, all your power and hand speed doesn’t matter. Furthermore, you won’t have the power or the hand speed in the first place unless your feet and body balance are correct and underneath you at all times. So, what does footwork have to do with mittwork? You guessed it. Everything.

You remember the scene from Rocky where the trainer put him in with a chicken and told him to catch it? Chasing a moving, random target is an excellent method for teaching agility. After your athlete has basic competency with punches, combos, and defensive maneuvers, add footwork. The trainer essentially becomes the chicken, with one addition—this chicken has teeth! In an instant, the hunter can become the hunted. The trainer can move in any direction to force the athlete to mirror those footwork moves, all the while keeping those jabs pumping and hands high, reacting to targets and threats. If the athlete is flat-footed with weight distributed to the heels, they’ll get caught by the trainer.

After your athlete has basic competency with punches, combos, and defensive maneuvers, add footwork for agility. Share on X

What does “caught” mean? The trainer will be able to get inside and land reminding taps to the body, and the athlete will try to respond to hit targets. However, because they are jammed up, their feet will fail to react quickly enough, and the punches will be off-balance with little power, speed, or effectiveness. All bad. The athlete will know they have been had, and they will work on better distribution of weight to the balls of the feet, better situational awareness, and better anticipation for quicker first-step movements.

Footwork then becomes progressively more complex. We have a sign in our gym that states, NO CAMPING! That means you don’t get to sit in front of your opponent and just swing away—MOVE.  The trainer trains the athlete to sit in the pocket for no more than 2–3 counts while unloading a combo. Once you deliver the payload, get out—step around, step back, come in and clinch, pivot and roll, slip and pivot, etc. These are all techniques your feet must drill and deliver on to open up the next scoring opportunities and/or defensive position.

There’s general agreement on what agility is: “a rapid whole-body movement and change of velocity or direction in response to stimulus.”³ There is, however, debate over the types of agility drills that have real value for improving game-time performance. In fact, there’s little to no evidence that common agility drills involving a closed course and pre-planned movements improve actual game-time agility.⁴ The reason is that game time agility is more complex than change of direction speed—it involves the cognitive ability to assess and react to unpredictable events. That’s why, according to sports performance director Nick DiMarco, “…agility has to involve the perceptual action component of it. OODA loop—observe, orient, decide, act. If it doesn’t involve that, it’s not actually an agility drill.”⁵ True agility drills need an opponent. DiMarco recommends a balance of “mirror/dodge” or “chase” drills to improve game-time agility performance.

True agility drills need an opponent and good mittwork fits this perfect. The trainer moves themselves in an unpredictable manner and trains the athlete to respond. Share on X

Good mittwork fits this perfectly. The trainer moves themselves in an unpredictable manner and trains the athlete to respond. In fight-style mittwork, the athlete is continually forced to react to unknown stimulus and respond by managing distance, position, and angles to create offensive opportunities and defensive safety. Again, with real mittwork, there is no setting up camp and swinging away at targets like a heavy bag in a boxing class. With true mittwork, you push your fighter to move. If they do not react to you stepping inside by stepping back out or throwing an inside punch, then you can “encourage” them to move by gently throwing a body shot as a reminder of what could have been. If that doesn’t work, I always use push-ups or squats!

The point is that mittwork is a natural game of cat and mouse, with the slight complication that the species are swapped quite often. Think of the flow of a football game where a referee blows a whistle and the defense comes on the field. Pretty slow transition, right? Or basketball, where there’s a transition from offense to defense, faster, but still slow. In boxing, there’s a millisecond between being on offense and defense and back on offense again, and each of those actions requires the right foot movement and change of direction. You, as the trainer doing mittwork, can bring pressure at any time or back it off at any time and train your athlete to respond with the right footwork. They have to observe, orient, decide, and act—the perfect agility drill.

The More Subtle Benefits of Boxing Mittwork for Elite Athletes

Apart from the primary benefits of mittwork for conditioning without injury, improving visual reaction time, and increasing agility, there are more subtle benefits. If you’ve been playing football, basketball, and/or soccer your whole life, it’s likely you’ve seen every kind of drill and exercise to get you to become a better player. Sometimes burnout can occur doing the same thing over and over, season after season, or, more often, with the emotional pressure to excel.⁶ Sometimes elite athletes need to just go out and play and enjoy themselves, which may be hard to do in their primary sport. Trying something new that represents a challenge but with no external pressure to succeed can lift the fog of burnout. Just as I tell my boxers to go out and play soccer, pick up a mountain bike, or try surfing, these keep the athlete (and anyone, actually), much more engaged when they come back to their primary sport.

Elite athletes have likely seen every kind of drill and exercise to get them to become a better player. Mittwork is something new that they can enjoy, and it can help lift the fog of burnout. Share on X

Breathing is key to any physical activity. I see breathing issues a lot in competitive athletes who might be young and have not quite reached elite level yet. In particular, many competitive athletes hold their breath doing mittwork. With the exception of powerlifters doing the Valsalva maneuver, holding your breath during any training or performance is not good. Holding your breath can impede the return of blood to the heart and deprive you the oxygen you need to get the job done.

Watching the breathing patterns of your athletes while mitt training will alert you to whether they hold their breath under stress. If they do, you can work on breathing exercises and slowing things down so that continuous breathing in through the nose and out through the mouth becomes second nature. After five minutes of mittwork with one college lacrosse player, I told him, “You know you hold your breath when you feel under pressure.” He replied, “Yeah, my coaches have been telling me that for years.”

Just when his brain needed the oxygen to make good decisions, none was coming. It was something we worked on by slowing the mittwork down until his breathing was smooth and continuous, and then increasing the speed of mittwork each week. In a month, he was able to breathe smoothly through high-intensity workouts.

Related to breathing is energy management. No professional boxer goes 100% for 15 rounds. Learning how to find those moments of rest in a high-intensity training interval may sound like cheating, but in reality, these micro-rests can help you explode when the situation calls for it.

Finally, boxing mittwork can help you find your fight again. There’s a trainer challenging you to keep up with them and to not let your guard down as you make balanced, solid contact with every target presented. You are a warrior, and this is the training of warriors. It’s a rewarding feeling that if those were actual threats, you would have an excellent shot at coming out the victor.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Bavelier, D., Green, C.S., Pouget, A., and Schrater, P. “Brain Plasticity Through the Life Span: Learning to Learn and Action Video Games.” Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2012; 35:391–416.

2. Spence, I. and Feng, J. “Video Games and Spatial Cognition.” Review of General Psychology. 2010; 14(2):92­–104.

3. Sheppard, J.M. and Young, W.B. “Agility Literature Review: Classifications, Training and Testing.” Journal of Sports Sciences. 2006; 24:919–932.

4. Young, W.B, Dawson B., and Henry, G. “Agility and Change-of-Direction Speed are Independent Skills: Implications for Agility in Invasion Sports.” International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2015; 10:160–170.

5. Nick DiMarco on Integration of Perception-Reaction Agility Training in Sports Performance: Just Fly Performance Podcast #152, 2019.

6. Gustafsson, H. “Burnout in Competitive and Elite Athletes.” 2007, Orebro Studies in Sport Sciences I. Universitetsbiblioteket.

Sports science often gets bad press, with many experienced coaches criticizing certain aspects of the discipline regularly. It’s certainly fair to say that there are many issues within sports science, but the same is true for almost every science. There are many problems within medicine, for example, and yet almost all of us still visit the doctor when there is something wrong.

I was invited recently to give a presentation at Southern Cross University in Coffs Harbour (Australia): “An Olympian’s Perspective on the Role of Sport Science and Psychology in Athlete Performance.” While preparing the presentation, I was forced to reflect both on how I used sports science during my career as well as how I now use sports science regularly in my current role.

Given the present discord with sports science in general, I thought it useful to write about these experiences and provide information on three specific areas in which sports science can be applied to help athletes reach an elite level—biomechanics, physiology, and psychology.

What Is Sports Science?

Trying to pin down the meaning of sports science is surprisingly difficult, as there is no set definition. For me, it’s the application of scientific principles to sport. Sports science is a relatively new discipline built on a foundation of other sciences, including biology (understanding how the human body works), physics and math (with equations relating to biomechanics), chemistry (recognizing a multitude of biochemical reactions), and psychology, along with small parts of other scientific fields, including sociology.

Sports science itself is a relatively fluid subject, and it’s continually evolving. We saw this perhaps five years ago with a strong shift in interest to skill acquisition research. And we’re seeing it now with an increased interest in data collection and analysis, meaning that more and more data scientists are transitioning to sport (and many sports scientists are working on upskilling in these areas).

The discipline’s on-going development can become increasingly complex with tools such as network analysis and other advanced modeling agents playing a role in our understanding of sport. These have trickle-down effects on how sports scientists work with coaches to improve performance.

This fluidity and ambiguity are demonstrated in the variety of job titles within the sports science sphere, including exercise physiologists, biomechanists, sports scientists, performance lifestyle advisors, strength and conditioning coaches, performance analysts, and sports medicine professionals. While there are people with the general job title of sports scientist, even their roles often focus on a specialty. Finally, it’s important to understand that sports science isn’t necessarily constrained to sport, with spillover into general exercise along with health and wellbeing.

#SportScience lets us understand what elite athletes do, how a developing athlete compares to them, & ways to bridge the gaps, says @craig100m. Share on X

Now that we have a working concept of what sports science is, the next step is to understand how it might help athletes achieve their potential. In discussing this, I will draw heavily from my career and experiences. My general process in using sports science to guide training is to understand what the best in the world do and where they are, where I am compared to them, and what I need to do to bridge the gaps.

Biomechanics

The first of the “big three” sports science disciplines that can help us is biomechanics, which I loosely define as the science of describing and explaining movement. Biomechanics allows us to delve deeper into what a world-class 100m performance looks like; the IAAF has released several studies that give us an idea of the kinetics and kinematics of elite sprinting, as have other researchers.

The table below includes some of the performance data from the 2009 World Championships, taken from the official IAAF report. It shows what a World Record 100m performance looks like in terms of split data and roughly what is required for a sub-10 performance. Perhaps the most useful data is the 0-30m split and the 30-60m split—which we can use as a proxy for a flying 30m run. Looking at athletes of different standards, we can get a reasonable idea of what it takes to perform at a given level.

As an athlete who was active in 2009, I could compare my performances directly to these benchmarks. At that time, we used an electronic block timing system that gave us 10m- and 30m-split data, in which my best was 3.98s. I also regularly collected flying 30m data, tested with a 30m roll-in. It was directly representative of the 30-60m split from the IAAF data, where my best time was 2.70s.

The data showed that I had a big gap in the 0-30m split. Allowing about 0.1s for competition, I was performing at the standard of a 10.20s runner, around 0.05s from a sub-10 runner, and about 0.1s from the WR performance.

Extrapolating my 2.70s training performance to 2.65s in competition, I was at the level of a sub-10 100m runner (even though my personal best was only 10.14s)—suggesting I should prioritize working on my first 30m. Other useful data is the 80-100m split, which offers insight into speed maintenance and endurance. Although I didn’t collect this data in training, I could have done so easily to see how my performances compared.

Building on our knowledge of what elite performance looks like in terms of split data—and how we might use this knowledge to compare our own performances—the next step is to understand the constituents of elite performance and how we compare.

Sprinting is primarily composed of step length and step frequency. We know from both the IAAF data and data reported elsewhere (including Ralph Mann’s excellent The Mechanics of Sprinting and Hurdling) that elite 100m runners have a typical step length of around 2.5 meters at maximum velocity, with a step frequency of around 4.5 Hz (i.e., they take around 4.5 steps per second).

As athletes, we can see how we compare to these values. During my career, we did this through a combination of in-competition biomechanical analysis and training analysis. The training analysis was typically done using OptoJump, a system of plastic blocks that join together and span either side of the lane in which you run. The OptoJump system sends out lasers across the track surface that are broken by your steps, giving you data on step length, step frequency, and ground contact time. The data allows you to see where you are in terms of performance in these variables and identifies areas for improvement.

Data from the 2008 British Olympic Trials 100m final, for example, showed that my step length in that race was 2.36m. I came third in that race, running 10.19s. The first two athletes ran 10.00s and 10.03s, respectively, with step lengths of 2.52m. Their step lengths were more indicative of world-class than mine, suggesting another potential area for improvement.

The next question, then, is how you might improve your step length? Once again, biomechanical analysis of the world’s best allows us to understand the components that feed into this. The best sprinters tend to achieve a greater thigh flexion angle, which means they’re better at getting their knee forward and through in front of the body. This action necessitates limiting the action of the leg behind the body, driving a focus on front side—as opposed to rear side—mechanics.

The increased thigh flexion angle increases the range of motion through which sprinters accelerate the foot toward the ground, increasing the speed and force at ground contact. These actions reduce ground contact time (which in world-class 100m runners is typically around 0.09s) and increase vertical force production—again, something that we know elite sprinters are very good at due to force plate analysis.

#Biomechanics helps us describe, explain, and achieve elite sprint performance, says @craig100m. #SportScience Share on X

As you can see, the sports science discipline of biomechanics is very useful in describing and explaining elite sprint performance, since we can:

• Use this information to compare ourselves to elite performance
• Identify specific areas for improvement
• Identify what an “optimal” technique looks like based on key performance factors

During my career, I also found biomechanists useful on a more day-to-day basis. For example, here is a video of me training in 2010:

Video 1. A clip of me training in 2010, allowing for biomechanical analysis.

The context behind this video is that I had changed coaches in September 2010, and my new coach had a different technical model. Because the model was primarily built around front side mechanics, the main technical changes were actively pulling my foot in off the ground to maintain my sprinting action in front of my body and focusing on achieving a 90-degree thigh flexion angle (for reasons explained above).

While these technical changes may sound simple, altering an ingrained running technique—one that I had developed over 23 years—was very difficult. One of my main challenges was building up the kinesthetic feel of the movement. What would it feel like when I was running properly by achieving the right positions versus running incorrectly? Developing this internal feel was important because it would enable me to self-maintain my new technique. Regular use of high-speed video, like the one above, was hugely useful. I could do a run, remember how it felt, and then check the video to see whether the running action was right or wrong.

High-speed video also helped me spot technique issues that might limit my performance. By slowing down a movement and providing more frames (i.e., images) per second than can be detected by the naked human eye, video lets us see our performance better—and does so from multiple angles.

We can also use high-speed video to check technique by exploring joint angles. For example, in the below photo, our biomechanist determined the joint angles at my front and rear knees in the set position. This is useful in many ways. Again, it allows me to compare myself to the optimum position and to see how stable my movement is.

If I do ten block starts, how often do I achieve these positions—am I consistent or highly variable? This is important because a more stable movement resists change when we’re stressed, fatigued, or nervous. If I always achieve these block angles in training, I know there’s a pretty good chance I’ll do it consistently in competition, too.

 

Physiology

Using physiology, we apply our knowledge of the human body to drive specific adaptations that can enhance performance. Within sprinting, we use this knowledge to optimize loading during resistance training, improving our capacity to produce the force required to sprint faster. We can also use physiology to develop our robustness and reduce the chances of injury.

#Physiology helps us optimize resistance training load so we can produce more force to sprint faster, says @craig100m. #SportScience Share on X

Hamstring Injuries

As a specific example, hamstring injuries are exceptionally common in all sports that require running, typically making up 25% of all non-contact injuries. We want to reduce the occurrence of hamstring injuries in athletes, especially when we know that missing training due to injury makes it much less likely to achieve your training goal.

Fortunately, a team of researchers from Australia has done some pioneering work in this area. We now know many of the risk factors associated with hamstring injuries, including reduced eccentric hamstring strength, shorter hamstring muscle fascicles, and previous hamstring injury. Based on this research, we also know that increasing eccentric hamstring muscle strength and muscle fascicle length can help reduce the risk and prevalence of hamstring injuries.

This has been well explored experimentally for exercises such as the Nordic hamstring exercise and the Yo-Yo hamstring curl. Both exercises have a large eccentric component and are effective at reducing the prevalence of hamstring injuries in athletes, likely by increasing eccentric strength and hamstring muscle fascicle length. With these results confirmed at the meta-analysis level (the highest possible level of scientific evidence), we know to include some form of eccentric hamstring exercise in our sprint training program.

Speaking from experience, I dealt with several hamstring injuries in my junior career, suffering from four separate hamstring injuries in my two years in the under-17 age group. Once I added the Romanian deadlift and Nordic hamstring exercises—both of which have a large eccentric component—my hamstring issues largely cleared up. As I progressed and grew more confident, these exercises gradually fell out of my program until 2008 when I suffered a very bad hamstring tear. At that point, I re-introduced them and no longer had any hamstring issues.

There are, however, potential issues with eccentric loading exercises in sport. Eccentric exercises cause a lot of soreness, especially when athletes first start doing them. While this soreness response is reduced and essentially disappears with repeated exposures (called the repeated bout effect), in many sports, athletes don’t like using eccentric loading exercises. And some researchers—although it’s important to mention not many—don’t necessarily believe that the hamstring muscles act eccentrically (or don’t primarily act eccentrically) during sprint running and instead act isometrically. This is quite hard to test experimentally.

We know many risk factors for hamstring injuries & how to reduce them with eccentric & isometric exercises because of #SportScience, says @craig100m. Share on X

Interestingly, isometric hamstring exercises also appear to reduce the risk of hamstring injuries in sport. More athletes may adhere to these exercises because post-exercise soreness will be lower, although the level of evidence is not as strong as for the Nordic hamstring and other eccentric exercises. And while they’re not “better” for improving eccentric muscle strength and muscle fascicle length, the isometric exercises might be more effective because they can be carried out more frequently and more widely.

This is a great example of two of my favorite things about sports science: the importance of context and the influence of nuance. While we might understand the biological mechanisms and other aspects of a certain intervention, we don’t know the true effects until it’s used in the real world. That’s when we get a better idea of its long-term implications and how athletes interact with the intervention—with aspects such as athlete belief impacting the effectiveness of any changes we might make.

Ice Baths

Other examples include the use of ice baths following exercise. The evidence now is pretty solid that post-exercise cold water immersion can enhance recovery, or at least reduce feelings of perceived soreness and fatigue. However, ice baths may be so good at improving recovery that they reduce the adaptations we get from exercise. This is because the improvements we see from exercise are partially driven by aspects such as muscle damage, oxidative stress, and inflammation—all things that cold water immersion may reduce.

As such, most sports scientists now recommend a time and a place for ice baths. When recovery is important—such as during the competitive season—perhaps we should use ice baths, especially if the athlete believes in them. However, when training adaptation is the main goal—primarily during the off-season—we should likely minimize ice bath use.

Antioxidant Supplements

Similar results are reported for antioxidant supplements. While antioxidants are a good thing in general, taking high-dose antioxidant supplements around training can blunt training adaptations. It’s a great example of how more of something that is good for you is not always better.

Psychology

I have a confession to make: I used to think that sports psychology was largely fluff, and at university, it was the sub-discipline I found least interesting. It was all very theoretical, as opposed to black and white, with right and wrong answers. However, I’ve experienced a complete 180-degree shift—I now find that sports psychology may make the biggest difference between athletes who win medals and those who don’t.

Sport psychology may make the biggest difference between athletes who win medals and those who don’t, says @craig100m. #SportPsychology Share on X

My journey toward better appreciating the true value of sports psychology started at the 2003 World Under-18 Championships, where I was selected in the 100m. This was my first true global competition, and I went in with reasonably low expectations, hoping to sneak into the final. From the heats, however, I was the fastest qualifier. And having run a personal best, I became a realistic medal prospect.

This caused a significant shift in my expectations, and as a result, I became much more anxious about my performance. In the semi-finals, this anxiety significantly hampered my performance, and I qualified for the finals in the last available “fastest loser” spot. Fortunately, one of the team coaches managed to turn me around, and in the final I ran much better, placing third.

Following these championships, I reflected on my performance and decided I’d better do something about my pre-race anxiety. As a result, I decided to work with a sports psychologist. In our first session, we talked about my pre-race nerves, and I discussed how negative they were and that being nervous pre-race was a bad thing.

The sports psychologist, however, had a different perspective. Feeling nervous was good, she said, because it meant that the race mattered, and the physiological effects of being anxious meant that my performance would improve. As stupid as this may sound, this piece of advice flicked a switch in my brain. By framing my pre-race anxiety as good rather than bad, I began to embrace the feeling—so much so that, as my career progressed, I needed to feel nervous and anxious to perform at my best.

At the World Under-18 Championships, I also learned the importance of representative practice—ensuring that your training accurately mimics the conditions in which you’ll compete. The World Under-18s were held in Sherbrooke, Canada, in July—typically a hot month. When we arrived, it was very warm, but on the day of my competition, I awoke to heavy rain showers and cold.

The weather was exactly what the long winters were like in the UK, so I was used to training in conditions like this. As a result, I performed very well. However, other athletes struggled with the conditions. The world number one that year was from Nigeria, and he was eliminated in the semi-finals. After that race, he told me he had never been as cold as he was during that race in his life. I’ve written more widely about representative practice in an earlier post, and it’s worth keeping in mind when designing your training sessions.

Other important psychological lessons I learned were the importance of not having it too easy. As a developing athlete, I was surrounded by other very successful athletes. And while I was consistently ranked very high on the all-time list as I progressed through the age groups, I often lost races. This meant that I was exposed to disappointment and failure, learned how to deal with both, and used them to spur me on to future success.

However, we often see talented youngsters who win easily and, as a result, they don’t learn how to deal with loss and disappointment. As they progress into the senior ranks—where losses are much more common—they haven’t developed the skills to deal with this.

Making things too easy for an athlete limits their development, yet many athlete development programs do just this, says @craig100m. #SportPsychology Share on X

It’s quite similar to the “rocky road” model of talent development, where talent often responds well to trauma. The key to athlete development programs, therefore, is to provide structured trauma in a way that encourages an athlete to grow and develop. Making things too easy for the athlete limits their development, and yet many athlete development programs are guilty of just this.

Final Suggestions

Hopefully, I’ve shown that sports science has the potential to impact an athlete’s performance significantly. As someone who competed to a high level, I found the application of sports science detailed here to be invaluable in assisting my performance development.

Alongside the big three disciplines of biomechanics, physiology, and psychology, other sub-disciplines, such as nutrition and skill acquisition, are emerging. Each has the potential to enhance athletic preparation further.

While much maligned, sports science can help athletes of all levels reach their potential when it’s used properly—with a full understanding of the individual nuances and contexts. I’m a strong believer in the power of sports science, and I’m excited to see how the field develops.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

In an increasingly impatient society that’s continually searching for instant gratification, it’s easy to chase results at the expense of the process. As it relates to youth soccer, this often means investing a disproportionate amount of time and energy into participating in a seemingly endless cycle of ID camps, college showcases, and random futsal tournaments while neglecting the underlying technical, tactical, and physical foundation that must be in place. With more attention now being paid to long-term athletic development (LTAD), most parents and athletes are aware of this, but feel pressured into keeping up with the Jones’. After all, development with no competition or exposure doesn’t put an athlete on a top college coach’s radar or get them a professional trial.

Admittedly, the risks of putting the cart before the horse or toiling in anonymity are both less than optimal. So, what’s best if development and results appear to be at odds with one another? I’m here to argue it’s not about putting your eggs in one basket or the other but distributing them accordingly at the appropriate time. For years as the strength and conditioning coach for the Pittsburgh Riverhounds Development Academy (RDA), I’ve witnessed time and again the power of a highly refined, nuanced approach that promotes development without devaluing competition and early success.

A thoughtful, structured approach for long-term development checks the appropriate boxes at the appropriate times. This is a critical distinction, as the timing is arguably the most important part of the process. The timing is far from one-size-fits-all either. When dealing with a young athlete’s maturity, personality and individual psychology are huge components. Some athletes are just ready to progress quicker than others and that’s great, but it’s very important to be aware that young athletes should dictate their own pace and not have it dictated to them by a coach.

A thoughtful, structured approach for LTAD checks the appropriate boxes at the appropriate times. The timing is arguably the most important part of the process, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

As a result, it’s necessary to foster an environment that can quickly adapt to progress or regress an individual athlete’s needs and still be able to express majority rule by doing what is best for a team. It’s a delicate balance, and it’s a constant work in progress. Truly, sometimes failure must come before success. The payoff in the end is well worth it and embracing the process, as opposed to fixating on results, has yielded tremendous success for our RDA athletes to the tune of multiple U.S. Club National titles, five All-Americans (four female, one male) in the past three years, and alumni at top programs across the ACC, Big Ten, Big East, and A-10.

More Strength, More Skill, Better Skill

Strength wins at all ages, but it is probably most evident at the earliest stages of development, as the disparity between those who have strength and those who don’t is most apparent. Whether through natural physiology or training adaptation, the difference between an early bloomer and a late bloomer can be glaring. Regardless of how strength is achieved, the strongest athlete is typically also the fastest and, in most cases, the most coordinated as well. This is most likely because, before adulthood, strength is more about inter- and intra-muscular coordination and proper motor unit recruitment than the size of a young athlete’s muscle.

Strength then provides an important motor link to desirable on-field attributes such as enhanced skill and speed by developing high levels of self-awareness and body control at lower velocities. At the youngest ages, the name of the game is relative strength. Mastery of body weight and expressions of that mastery through running, jumping, landing, twisting, and throwing are a must first, and only then, as young athletes mature and earn the right through proper progressions, can they train for load and more traditional absolute strength. Isometrics (holds) and eccentrics (slow stretches) are fantastic at giving real-time feedback to beginners and engraining proper positions and signaling pathways.

A subtle by-product of getting strong young is an increased affinity for actively doing more skill work. An energetic athlete is a motivated one, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

The link between strength and skill is relatively clear, but another more subtle by-product of getting strong young is an increased affinity for actively doing more skill work. Stronger muscles are more resilient and recover more quickly from prior training and competitions, so young athletes are more likely to demonstrate spontaneity and get on the ball just because they have more energy to do so. An energetic athlete is a motivated one, and the value of feeling good cannot be overlooked. Youth sports should be enjoyable, and the desire fades if soccer starts to resemble more of a chore than a game.

Let’s face it, if athletes are sore and tired, they are more likely to reach for the PS4 controller than get touches on the ball. Over the marathon that is long-term athletic development, a little bit truly goes a very long way. If one athlete organically does more quality skill work, speed work, and gym work, it will matter in the end. “Hard work beats talent when talent doesn’t work hard” may be a bit too simplistic of a cliché, but when comparing two athletes with similar skill sets, the athlete with the ability to handle more work over time will always be at an advantage.

Building a Better Athlete

To build a well-rounded athlete, you must dedicate time and energy to making speed, power, and fitness the primary focuses. In theory, it’s that simple. However, it requires effort to first make the commitment and then demonstrate the discipline and expertise required to follow through and put it into practice. This means devoting entire sessions specifically to developing athleticism away from the ball.

Due to the highly technical nature of soccer, it’s critical to be on the ball as much as possible, but it is still necessary at times to make sure physical development doesn’t become a watered-down afterthought. Warming up with laps around the field and finishing with haphazard sprints, push-ups, and crunches does not constitute building a better athlete. Stand-alone sessions with specific themes of speed, agility, power, and strength really allow young athletes to dedicate the adaptive reserve necessary to improving those skill sets.

This is protocol at the Riverhounds Development Academy. Our youth teams train with me a minimum of once a week throughout the year, and our older teams train twice a week. This is deeply embedded within the cultural fiber of our club, and the kids have really taken to it. With so much soccer all the time, this provides a nice change of pace for them both mentally and physically.

The success of those who have previously come through our system creates the initial buy-in, and from there it doesn’t take long for them to personally experience the benefits. These benefits are typically characterized by moments on the field in which the young athlete feels different physically, in a positive way, whether it be turning a corner, winning a 50/50 ball, or not fatiguing late in a game. These seemingly trivial, highly subjective moments on the field mean more to young athletes than running a faster 30 meters, posting a higher countermovement jump, or improving upon their max aerobic speed. These same moments breed high levels of confidence and demonstrate the value of prioritizing physical development, as actions truly speak louder than words at early ages.

The value of supplemental development and strengthening weaknesses is even greater, as the days of the multisport athlete are being jeopardized, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Prioritizing physical preparedness also promotes healthy, sustainable, long-term development. Continually playing soccer and repeating the same movement patterns lends itself to overuse injuries, and injuries are the quickest way to disrupt the longevity of a young athlete’s career. Setting aside time specifically dedicated to addressing these concerns with general strengthening exercises to fill in the gaps will keep young players much healthier in the long run.

For vitality, it is best to be contrarian and avoid sport specificity by developing muscle groups typically underutilized in soccer like the glutes, hamstrings, and back. The value of supplemental development and strengthening weaknesses is even greater as the days of the multisport athlete are being jeopardized. Playing many sports naturally created a broader, more robust skill set, and the dawn of a new season brought about a new movement pattern and different substrate to perform on that naturally protected against overuse. With athletes now identifying with one sport and playing that sport year-round at a much earlier age, it is becoming increasingly necessary to have strategies in place to handle these concerns.

Don’t Worry About Conditioning

It is important for young soccer players to understand the value of fitness, but it is not necessary for it to be an actively developed focal point until the young athlete becomes a teenager. The organic rise of fitness should be the result of well-organized technical sessions that keep kids engaged and active throughout, as well as the acquisition of higher strength and skill levels pertaining to running and sprinting. Encouraging free play and staying as active as possible naturally builds volume when young, so the athletes have a nice aerobic base to build intensity on later as they mature.

It’s important for young soccer players to understand the value of fitness but not necessary to actively develop it until the young athlete becomes a teenager, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Although I may not directly condition, I do find it beneficial to teach good habits that develop positive attitudes as it relates to conditioning. I am a firm believer that strong runners make good sprinters, so distinguishing between jogging, running, and sprinting is helpful. Having young athletes maintain skill and rhythm at different speeds and be able to efficiently switch gears as needed is very important for energy maintenance. Young athletes are typically all or nothing: walking when fatigued or away from the play or going like a bat out of hell once they think they have a chance to make a play.

Being able to assess when to cruise or step on it is a skill that I like to develop with very low-volume extensive tempo work and fartleks. I think the impact of treating conditioning more as a skill when young is just as important as the physiological changes that should occur later. A more skilled approach can create the perception that a young athlete is becoming fitter.

Compatibility with Other Sports

We now know that a broad athletic skill set with varied movement patterns is best for the longevity of a young athlete’s career. On the surface, it would then appear that participating in multiple sports at a young age is the answer, but is it the only answer? We have all heard the stories of legendary athletes and their prowess at multiple disciplines. Dave Winfield was drafted by the MLB, NBA, and NFL before finally settling on a Hall of Fame baseball career. Bo Jackson and Deion Sanders both played in the MLB and NFL, and it is well-documented that Michael Jordan did nothing but golf in his off-season.

Is this practical or even possible now, as the natural evolution of all sports has led to bigger, faster, stronger, better—in large part due to specializing at earlier ages? While playing many sports throughout the year might be ideal, long-term athletic development in 2019 may face a new reality. To that end, I believe it is our job collectively as a strength and conditioning community to solve this problem by providing the necessary physical balances a one-sport athlete may need while considering the depth that a multisport athlete may already possess. As with many things, there are many paths that can lead to the same destination.

It is our job collectively as an S&C community to provide the necessary physical balances a one-sport athlete may need while considering the depth that a multisport athlete may already possess. Share on X

Taking a supplemental approach in which we identify and address weaknesses will be of increasing value as young athletes continue to specify at younger ages. The diversity that playing multiple sports once addressed naturally will have to be replaced by well-thought-out and well-timed performance training. Building a broad athletic skill set that teaches athletes how to run, jump, land, cut, twist, push, pull, and hinge in all planes of motion at varying velocities and tastefully challenging with light loads as needed will optimize both health and performance.

Deliberate rest periods will also begin to take on greater significance. While #rest may not move the needle like #hustle or #grind, it’s just as important. Particularly at the youngest ages, rest is too quickly dismissed. Kids adapt, learn, and recover quicker from training stress, but they also require a lot of energy to grow and mature.

The Difference Between Burnout and Boredom

Striking the appropriate balance between competition and training at young ages is a very important task and we should not do it haphazardly. Competing too much can limit technical and physical progress, as well as burn a young athlete out physically, mentally, and emotionally. Conversely, not playing enough might lead to boredom, as a young soccer player might begin losing sight of the reason they train. Prioritizing training while integrating friendlies, tournaments, and ID camp attendance as barometers of progress is optimal.

Competition is subordinate to training during the critical early years of athletic development, and not the other way around, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Hand-selecting events around training that can challenge at certain times and breed confidence at other times is an art. Success is more motivating to young athletes than failure, but they must learn how to fail. Never experiencing adversity at a young age will leave the athlete ill-prepared later. The trick is to simultaneously know the capabilities and personality of the player as an individual and collectively as a team, while never losing sight of the fact competition is subordinate to training, and not the other way around, during the critical early years of development.

Too often, parents and their young athletes fall prisoner to the moment and place too much stock in results, whether good or bad. It is highly unlikely both that the sky is falling, and the young athlete is destined to be the next Christian Pulisic or Alex Morgan. The answer lies somewhere in between, and there is something to be said for treating triumph or disaster as the imposters they are and focusing instead on the totality of a growing body of work.

You should build the foundation for the long-term success of a young soccer athlete on a broad technical base with a high volume of quality touches on the ball with all surfaces of the foot and various parts of the body. Specifically, the Riverhounds Development Academy utilizes a juggling log. It is simple, highly effective, and a great way to hold our athletes accountable to getting quality touches daily, as opposed to just smashing balls at a goal or wall. They must record their progress and are subject to spot checks during training at any time. The goal is 1,000 unbroken juggles, and then we have the kids progress to seated juggling.

There are regressions as well for the super young. Balloons and bounce juggles are effective at prepping for actual juggling. Building comfort on the ball while simultaneously building a broad general skill set is the key to longevity and success, particularly if an athlete identifies with just one sport. It’s simple, but it requires discipline and postponement of immediate gratification. Long-term athletic development is not a sprint; in fact, it’s not even a marathon. It’s an ultra-marathon with an Ironman thrown in for good measure, so stay patient.

Long-term athletic development is not a sprint; in fact, it’s not even a marathon. It’s an ultra-marathon with an Ironman thrown in for good measure, so stay patient, says @houndsspeed. Share on X

Start with the End in Mind

Development and success are not at odds with each other, but rather go hand-in-hand if done properly. Committing to establishing a firm foundation based on technical skill and general athletic enhancement will always be the best way to create winning results while sustaining longevity. An appropriate balance of training and competition that favors development and uses games primarily as a litmus test should always be the goal.

Chasing results and cutting corners might bring about more immediate rewards but be warned that it’s fool’s gold. Foresight and vision are necessary to grasp the 30,000-foot view that long-term athletic development requires. Stay the course, as it is the disciplined, conservative investments in training and physical development early that will yield the greatest dividends in the end.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

If you sneak into the warm-up area before a major championship race, you’ll most likely see eight different routines used by the finalists. That’s always been my favorite part of the sport to watch, because while the few seconds of the sprint race are frustratingly short, the warm-up extends to more than a couple of hours.

Admittedly, the pre-race activity of Usain Bolt has always been quite frustrating as well: physio and assisted stretching on a table, a few strides, and gone to the call room before the race. If you wanted to film drills and starting-blocks trials, the world’s fastest human was not the one to follow!

However, for the 200m competition at the 2009 World Championships in Berlin, I chose to focus on him with my Casio Exilim camera. He had just broken his own 100m world record with an unbelievable 9.58, so he was expected to do the same at 200m. He did just that in 19.19, a record that still stands 10 years later. So, in 2019, I guess it’s about time to release the footage of what happened backstage in preparation for one of the greatest performances in history:

Video HERE

Quarter-Final

On the morning of August 18, 2009, Bolt won his heat in 20.70, a 93% effort compared to his personal best (19.30 at the 2008 Beijing Olympics). I came to the warm-up track in the afternoon to record his pre-quarter-final warm-up. Obviously, he was not going to do much exercise, as he would eventually jog through in 20.41, a 94% effort. What I wanted to do was record his running motion in a sagittal plane to observe how he gets faster and faster as the warm-up progresses, and compare this with his top-speed mechanics, as displayed during the 100m world record. At 65% speed (8 m/s), his step length is 2.44 vs. 2.77 during the 100m, and his step rate is 3.3 vs. 4.4 hz, but the major change was how fast the foot was striking the ground.

Semi-Final

The next day, (August 19), Bolt won his semi-final in 20.08. I decided to film him from behind and take close-ups of his foot. A top hurdler friend told me, “Hey, that’s not how you are going to find Bolt’s secret for speed.” I laughed. At least I would get beautiful pictures that would be used by physios regarding Bolt’s atypical alignments and foot sole action in acceleration phase.

Final

The final was scheduled the next evening (August 20), his eighth race of the championships. Although this was only going to be the second one at full effort, he was already tired, to judge from his attitude and complaints. It was completely understandable, with all the attention and duties around him during these championships. This was the shortest warm-up I’d seen him do.

Under the eyes of coach Glen Mills and manager Ricky Simms, he wore the spikes and only did two starts without blocks. He only took a few steps and almost false-started on the second one. I left the warm-up area feeling that he would be lucky to win with 19.7 and not get injured. But I was so wrong, as he would run 19.19 and win by 0.62, the greatest margin ever in a contemporary world-class 200m.

A Proper Warm-Up?

Was this warm-up routine effective for Usain Bolt? Should you copy it? Does it tick all the boxes of a proper warm-up? I’ll leave these questions open while you watch Bolt’s video. To accompany your reflection, here’s the definition of warm-up by my colleague Fabio Martins, a Portuguese physio in the Shanghai province who has spent some time at the Diamond Leagues this year with Team China: 

“For me, warm-ups should be athlete-dependent. If they feel more prepared from doing an in-depth one, we do it. If they like a more condensed variation, we choose that instead. However, there are always two major components I include when carrying out the preparation for athletic optimisation: movement and the mind. Transfer to sport is a critical factor when planning a training program and it should be no different when deciding on what to include within a warm-up. It could be seen as an additional opportunity to input motor skill development, remedial-based exercises, and visualisation strategies. Over time, good habits have the potential to not only improve movements, but can also instil confidence! Additionally, even further benefits can be gained via manual treatment from a therapist prior to the session/competition. With enough skill, the therapist should once again be able to potentiate the two major components: movement and the mind, to help create optimal performance outcomes!”

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Have you noticed that we see either the lowest introductory level jumping exercises or the holy grail of BIG BOX JUMPS? Do you ever wonder what happened to the medium intensity jumping sequences and where they fit into your program?

Let’s find a home for this stepchild of plyometric intensities—the middle-intensity jumps. WARNING: Your cool factor on social media might take a drastic hit because you’re not jumping onto a 50-inch stack of Olympic plates swaying back and forth as you go into your approach.

The Gap Between Beginner and Advanced Jumping Exercises

Recently I wrote a post on using very low boxes for training, 2-4 inches in height, to elicit a very reactive response to ground contacts. I shared how these lower level, yet extremely quick, actions could be used vertically, horizontally, and lateral specific. It was a pretty cool article if you want to check it out to gain perspective on low box training.

Although the strategies used in low box training stand on their own, they’re also great to use in the early stages of building a foundation of the foot, ankle, and lower leg strength, plus power and elasticity when preparing your athletes for higher-level plyometrics.

Logically, the next progression in the sequence of jumping is to add more intensity—let’s say more potential knee bending and a little less focus on elastic energy. To do so, we’re going to graduate our athletes up to more medium-height jumping, including medium-height boxes.

Keep in mind, as we go up in height, we slowly eliminate the lateral influence of change of direction type elastic work. But that’s perfectly fine. And it’s a good thing because the higher we go and the more intensity we drive, the less variability we want so we can safely produce force at appropriate angles—while protecting our joint systems.

Okay, what do I mean when I talk about medium jumping and medium boxes? Does this mean athletes are only using medium effort to execute all these medium jumps? Ah, no, not exactly. Let me talk about how high we jump and box height before I go into programming and various jumping strategies. Then I can draw some lines connecting the various jumping height strategies.

Before I go any further, this article is not about box heights. It’s about medium-level intensities of jumping or plyometric activities. I include boxes because it is a no-brainer strategy if they’re available. I want to make sure, though, that you don’t use the lack of boxes as an excuse to not participate in jumping and plyometric activities.

Take a look at the chart below. It outlines what a medium box means to different athletes. Please keep in mind that this is just a chart and not a commandment—it’s a starting point. You can adjust athletes to box height accordingly.

The heights outlined in the chart aren’t extremely high—hence the name medium box. A typical question people have is: How do we challenge our athletes enough to gain improvement if we are not jumping up to a maximum height box? The answer lies in the application of jumping strategies.

The strategies in the chart below are not just for jumping onto a medium box. They’re additional strategies to build eccentric capacities in the various areas of the body that contribute to jumping better, especially when referring to the reversibility of effort (when you must change the direction down to up quickly).

The chart above might seem elementary. You bet it is! Stop thinking that we have to create the next YouTube sensational drill series. Do things with great intent and purpose, keep them fundamental, add variation, and you’ll have one heck of a strategy to improve your athletes safely. And remember to live for another day and always come up and inch short versus a mile over. Your athletes will thank you.

In the next section, take a look at the video demonstrations of the five jumping strategies listed in the chart. Watching them will help drive home the message of why.

Building Eccentric Control with Fake Throws and Other Exercises

Posterior Chain Eccentric Control with Fake Throws

What are fake throws? They’re part of a strategy I developed decades ago to elicit a fast eccentric action through the kinetic chain. Basically, an athlete moves a light medicine ball very quickly as if throwing it, but suddenly stopping it to create immediate deceleration (you can use other weights as long as they are 4lb-10lbs).

When doing a fake throw, the muscles throughout the body quickly tense to stop all movements, from limbs to upper and lower body. This was my way of creating an innate stiffness in the body to control movement by building eccentric control. There are countless strategies to use the fake throw concept to increase eccentric control.

Video 1. I use a very basic landing skill with a high-to-low vertical fake throw to cause posterior loading overload.

Knee-Bending Eccentric Control with DB and Bar Loading

Athletes doing these exercises use DBs, a bar, or bodyweight to execute the movements. Knee-bending eccentrics are performed with the upper body simply dropping straight down with little to no hip flexion. The weight is delivered primarily to the knee and ankle joints as the primary spring loaders. These kinds of movements cause an important adaptation to higher speed loads. If the athlete quickly redirects the load back up, the movement aids the coordination of agonist and antagonist muscle functioning even though it’s highly focused on tendon resiliency when not going very deep.

Video 2. Knee-bending eccentric control using a dumbbell and a bar for loading.

Arm Lever Length and Speed from Tight to Extended

Arm action may be one of the most overlooked aspects of jumping. Depending on the type of jump, the arms can be kept closer to the body and never extend past 90 degrees at the elbow. Yet, in a sport like volleyball, outside hitters use a very long approach with relatively long ground contact time to execute a high vertical displacement. To achieve this, the athlete swings their arms much longer to coordinate the action of the approach jump footwork (the inside foot touches first followed by the outside foot).

Video 3. In some sports, the arms swing long to coordinate the approach jump footwork. In other sports, the arms stay close to the body to quicken the jump.

A middle blocker in volleyball will keep the arms close and vertical to the body, never getting too far out front until they reach the peak of the jump and attempt to block. This arm action lets them jump quicker to execute a block. A soccer goalie having to jump quickly to punch a ball coming high at the goal will also use a very tight quick arm action to get up quickly to time the speed of the ball.

Multiplanar Bilateral Jumping in All Planes

Video 4. Athletes learn to manage body control by performing jumps in various directions.

In this video, the jumps are performed in various directions. You can challenge an athlete with a lateral jump, a lateral jump with 90 degrees of rotation, a forward jump with transverse rotation at any degree, etc.

The athlete’s ability to effectively manage body control while performing multiplanar jumps is critical in overall athletic preparedness. In sport, athletes often land in awkward positions, and if they’ve never been challenged or experienced this before, their injury risk rises.

Multiplanar Unilateral Hops and Leaps in All Planes

Video 5. Medium intensity single-leg jumping exercises prepare athletes for sports often played on one leg.

Multiplanar hops and leaps follow the basic path as the multiplanar jumps. The obvious hurdle to overcome is making sure athletes are prepared to manage single-leg exercises with great control.

Performing medium intensity single-leg jumping exercises is valuable because sports are so often played on one leg, requiring an athlete to very quickly stabilize in the single-leg landing patterns.

It should be pretty clear that if you’re not addressing the “not so common” strategies to improve the jump, you’re leaving resources untapped.

Do not think I don’t know the fun stuff is what athletes keep coming back for. I totally agree you can have your cake and eat it too. What I mean is, if you want to make sure you do exercises that challenge the athletes and make it fun yet still focus on the appropriate intensities and safety parameters—as Sylvester Stallone says in Rocky, “GO-FOR-IT.”

Body-Only Exercises and Skills

I want to shift gears now to completely address jumping and plyometric type exercises with the use of ZERO equipment. Yep, just bodyweight strategies that can challenge the nervous system to elicit a coordinated response. These exercises bridge the gap between the reactive low box and low-level exercises and the monstrous big box and high hurdle training.

Bodyweight exercises bridge the gap between the reactive low box & low-level exercises and the monstrous big box & high hurdle training, says @leetaft. Share on X

Hey, wait! It’s a great time to define the difference between jumping and plyometrics. I know this is talked about to death, but I’d feel remiss if I don’t let you know what I think about these two strategies.

When I speak of jumping (leaping and hopping also fall into this category), I’m primarily concerned with the concentric effort of the jump. Meaning, the attention is on pushing through the floor to lift the body off the ground. My attention to how long it takes—I certainly don’t want it slow—isn’t as urgent as it is when focusing on plyometrics. Now, I do realize there will likely be an eccentric or loading phase to the jumping, leaping, or hopping, but the focus isn’t on that aspect of the movement—it’s on pushing up or concentrically driving the body up.

Plyometric exercises, on the other hand, are totally focused on the quick turnaround between landing and jumping. We call this the amortization phase, the loading phase—you know, the phase between going down and going up. We want it quick!

The difference between the jump and the plyo (plyometric) is that the jump relies a lot on the muscular system to provide the energy to jump. The plyo does need help from the muscle for sure, but it’s the tendon and its ability to store and release energy quickly that we want. Are we good?

Now I want to dig into some jumping and plyo strategies, using nothing but the ground and the weight of the body—gravity will jump in there too, so don’t even fight it.

Bodyweight Jump Strategies

To ensure my athletes have a great foundation of medium-intensity jumping, leaping, and hopping, I start with stationary exercises like those in the video below. The video also sets the standard of how to define jumps, leaps, and hops. Remember, these fall under jumps—not plyometrics—so there will be more emphasis on the concentric portion of the movement.

Video 6. To give athletes a great foundation of medium intensity jumps, leaps, and hops, start with these stationary exercises.

But what if I want to put a focus on more posterior dominant versus quad dominant exercises? What could I do? Of course, I’m going to allow the hips to flex forward much more. If my attention is on quad dominant, I won’t allow the hips to flex forward and will attempt to keep the upper body more upright. But this causes me to use more ankle dorsiflexion so I can downwardly load. Take a look at the video below showing examples of a posterior, or hip, dominant jump versus a quad, or knee, dominant jump.

Video 7. Example of a posterior-hip dominant jump vs. a quad-knee dominant jump.

One of the goals of a solid jumping program should be to challenge body and spatial awareness. Body awareness means where the limbs are in space during a movement. Basically, am I in control of hitting proper positions with arms, legs, and entire body? Spatial awareness lets us know where our bodies are in space. Meaning, am I tilting to the right, or leaning backward, or about to fall over? Kind of important to be good at if you want to be a successful jumper and mover.

Bodyweight Plyometric Strategies

In this section, I’ll pull your attention to using plyometric strategies to challenge athletes’ abilities to get off the ground much faster while still moving extremely efficiently—in other words, not sloppy while executing the exercises.

Earlier I discussed posterior versus quad dominant performances while jumping. It’s easy to focus on either/or when jumping. When performing medium-level plyometrics, we start leaning toward quad dominant and lower leg dominant emphasis.

Why? Well, if we’re not jumping from or at maximal heights and don’t need as much hip bending to help absorb forces, we typically can quickly return the energy using more tendinous structures and not require as much power from the muscles—as in a big hip flexion to load the posterior chain.

If my goal is to increase the speed I get back off the ground, I need to limit how low I go when I land. To do this, I rely on more ankle dorsiflexion and knee flexion and less hip flexion. But truthfully, I don’t want a ton of knee flexion either. If I have that, I end up losing the energy in the tendons in the form of heat. It comes down to landing and jumping back up as quickly as possible.

I didn’t mean to skate over an important aspect of stored energy in the tendon. Let me explain what I mean by the tendon losing heat. When an athlete lands and instantly goes back up, the energy built up in the tendon is used to “rebound” the tendon from its stretched state back to its shortened state very fast. This causes an elastic response, which is what makes athletes faster.

But if the athlete lands and pauses, the energy stored in the tendon during the stretch phase can’t hang around for very long. So, the tendon relaxes to the stretched state, and the energy that was built up gets released in the form of heat—meaning no more elastic response or fast movement. Kind of sucks when this happens. There’s more to it, but this gives a birds-eye view of what we want to accomplish with plyos.

Medium Intensity Lower Body Plyometric Exercises

When performing medium-level plyometrics, a coach must have a reason for going sub-maximal yet going higher than the reactive exercises performed with a low box or low-level reactive jumps. My answer to this falls in the realm of learning to manage more load than the very low-level exercises and before the high loads come with the maximal plyometric exercises, such as high load depth jumps.

In this section, I want to outline several of my favorite exercises to challenge an athlete’s loading and exploding abilities as well as their coordination to manage variations in patterns.

Think about this for a second. If an athlete wants to move quickly off the ground, they must apply force into the ground much more quickly. They must not only apply force quicker but also redirect the force quicker to leave the ground quickly. Now, low-level plyos do allow quickness off the ground, but there’s not a lot of force applied into the ground—it’s merely elastic energy.

In the early to middle training phases, medium-level plyometrics are the best way to get speed off the ground & force into the ground, says @leetaft. Share on X

On the other hand, if they jump from a maximal height, they will greatly increase the force into the ground but might not be able to get off the ground very quickly, at least not in the early to middle phases of training when they’re not fully prepared. So, the best alternative to get both speed off the ground and force into the ground is medium-level plyometrics.

Here is a list of exercises I love to use. I’ve included videos so you can see the execution of the exercises.

The Knee Tuck Series

Tuck Jump with a Hand Tap on the knees to slightly control the height. To execute this plyo, the athlete must not put too much emphasis on jumping high but rather jumping quickly. You’ll notice the athlete’s head doesn’t go vertical very much, but the knees and hips flex quickly to bring the knees up to the outstretched arms and hands.

Video 8. Tuck jumps with a hand tap emphasize jumping quickly.

Vertical Tuck Jump. In this version of the tuck jump, the athlete attempts to bring the knees up above the waistline to challenge body awareness and to increase the intensity of the landing. In this exercise, you can see the athlete is trying to jump higher by watching the head travel vertically.

Cycle Tuck Jump. The level of body awareness goes way up as well as the intensity of the landing. The athlete is not jumping maximally, as these are medium-level exercises, but the force into the ground is increasing as it slowly goes toward more unilateral bias.

The Lateral Series

Lateral Leap. Also knowns as an ice-skater, the lateral leap challenges the athlete’s ability to use effective and efficient positions to quickly leap right to left while maintaining stability in supportive structures of the foot and ankle complex, knee, hip, and pelvis, and upper body influencers such as shoulder and head. The athlete must quickly redirect the force going angular into the ground and return in the direction they came.

Video 9. Lateral leaps require athletes to quickly redirect the angular force going into the ground and return in the direction they came.

Medial Continuous Hops. In this video, notice how the athlete performs on the same leg moving to the inside (for example, the right leg moving toward the left or vice versa). This exercise places the stressors on the medial structures of the body, such as the groin and adductors, quadratus lumborum and obliques, and structures of the foot, ankle, and lower leg such as posterior tibialis, peroneal, and gastroc-soleus. The hops also challenge the glute medius to support frontal plane pelvic positioning upon landing.

Lateral Continuous Hops. The stress to the body shifts on this exercise to the lateral structures such as glute medius and other supporting structures. I tend to migrate toward the continuous medial hops more than the continuous lateral hops for one primary reason. In court and field sport, athletes do so much cutting and hard change of direction that the IT-band is always under tension due to the hip structures (TFL and glutes) it attaches to. It’s not that I don’t train this exercise—I just monitor it with my athletes. My first priority as a strength coach is to do no harm.

The Bridge Between Beginner and Advanced Training

I don’t know, but I believe medium intensity plyometrics and jumping have their place. As a matter of fact, because I’m traditionally a very low-risk coach, I love medium intensity plyos. I like to find sound strategies where I can increase the variability, and therefore the feedback, the athletes get by training at sub-maximal levels.

I love medium intensity plyos. I can increase variability and get more feedback when athletes train at sub-maximal levels, says @leetaft. Share on X

One of the ways I attack jumping, especially plyos, is by enhancing the parts of the body above the hips to recoil and redirect energy quickly. This is where the fake throw methodologies come into play.

To enhance the performance and safety of all your athletes, you need to train at all levels and intensities with plyos. A medium level is simply a strategic tool that checks a lot of boxes, at least for me. I use them, I get results, and my athletes gain great foot and ankle resilience. Maybe most importantly, my athletes like them and feel great from doing them. And that’s good enough for me!

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Throughout my professional career, I have traveled across the country visiting, as well as consulting, with many professional and collegiate athletic teams and programs. During these occasions, I have witnessed and been asked to evaluate various off-season and in-season athletic team training sessions and planned program designs. These observations, as well as my numerous discussions with physicians, rehabilitation professionals, sport coaches, and strength and conditioning professionals, expose a concern over the incorporation of high-level stressors (i.e., high-intensity exercise) into the athlete’s training program design. This apprehension (fear) appears to intensify at the time of the in-season training period, because, in addition to training, athletes also participate in team practice and game day competition.

To initiate this dialogue’s “elephant in the room,” I need to address the anxiety triggered by the distressful “what if” that arises during the course of an athlete’s training. In my four decades of professional practice in the related fields of sports rehabilitation and athlete strength and conditioning, as well as my time as the CEO of a 2,000+ employee, 185-facility physical therapy enterprise, my experiences have taught me to learn from the mistakes of the past, place emphasis on and address the concerns of the present, and make concise and well-thought-out decisions based upon factual information. Since initiating these principles, I’ve realized the large majority of “what if” fears will never come to fruition.

If an individual places focus upon the “what if” scenario of a possible fatal accident while driving a car, “what if” a deadly virus is acquired while wandering into crowded public settings, and “what if” serious injury transpires from participating in athletic competition, this individual likely wouldn’t drive a car, wouldn’t leave their home, and certainly would not participate in athletic endeavors. However, we can assume the majority of the population does not address life’s circumstances with this perspective. So why is there such a strong concern placed upon the “what if’s” during the athlete’s training?

Now, with that stated, the application of high-level stressors during training is not a free pass for the S&C professional to institute poor programming and inadequate training agendas or provide “off the cuff” imprudent decisions that are not well-organized, evidenced-based, or well-coached. 

What Is a ‘High Stress’ Application?

In my previous SimpliFaster blog post, I highlighted Al Vermeil’s Hierarchy of Athletic Development, as well as Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome, including the need for an unaccustomed stress application in order for physical adaptation to take place. High stressors are applied in the form of exercise “intensity” and may include, but are not limited to, exercise weight, exercise velocity, jump heights or distance, running velocity and distance, and many other activities utilized to enhance an athlete’s physical abilities. High levels of applied stress do not necessarily translate to the application of a heavy weight or high-velocity movements. High levels of stress refer to the application of a stressor to which the athlete is unaccustomed, resulting in a physical adaptation to that particular stressor.

An appropriate programmed unfamiliar stressor at suitable periods of the training cycle is needed for physical adaptation to take place. Share on X

You should also note that normally perceived “lower intensity” stressors may in reality be of “higher intensity” when utilized in the rehabilitation and training environments. Such a scenario may include a rehabilitation exercise progression to a 1-pound weight during a straight leg raise exercise where the patient previously had the limited ability to only lift the weight of their leg. “Healthy” high school and college freshmen who have no formal history of organized training would likely begin with lower stressor intensities (perceived as high to them) when compared to their seasoned peers. These same principles apply when introducing a progression of appropriate and significant high intensities (i.e., heavy weight, high sprinting velocities, etc.) founded upon the demonstrated abilities displayed by the experienced athlete during training. Regardless of the type of perceived intensity application, the premise remains that an appropriately programmed unfamiliar stressor at suitable periods of the training cycle is needed for physical adaptation to take place.

A review of Al Vermeil’s Hierarchy of Athletic Development (figure 1) demonstrates that strength is the physical quality foundation from which all other physical qualities evolve.

The physical quality of strength has been recognized to assist in injury reduction¹, as weaker athletes sustain more muscle and mechanical damage when compared to their stronger peers². Stronger athletes also display faster sprint times³, as well as the ability to change direction more rapidly and more efficiently⁴. When compared to stronger athletes, weaker athletes tend to rely more on ligaments for joint stability in high-intensity situations. This phenomenon is known as ligament dominance⁵, placing this group of athletes at increased risk of injury. During athletic competition, with athleticism and skill being very similar, it is the stronger athlete that will usually prevail. Strength is an essential physical quality in both the rehabilitation and athletic performance environments.

The Physical Quality of Strength

The physical quality of strength, as with any physical quality, is continually enhanced with the appropriate cyclic application of unaccustomed high intensity. You should evaluate and treat every athlete as an individual, as some may not be suited or properly prepared for the same high-intensity stressor applied to their peers. Proper preparation and the establishment of a work capacity are fundamental essentials often overlooked during the athlete’s training process. These fundamental essentials will help ensure future desired physical quality outcomes while allowing for suitable recovery and decreased threat of injury.

Proper preparation and the establishment of a work capacity are fundamental essentials often overlooked during the athlete’s training process. Share on X

Clearly, strength-based athletes such as powerlifters and Olympic-style weightlifters place no constraint upon weight intensity performance, as this is the outcome goal for success in these competitive sports. The objective for lifting weights in the team sport setting is to assist in the enhancement of the athlete’s physical qualities and athleticism, not for the creation of a competitive powerlifter or weightlifter. We should also note that other non-weightlifting activities such as sprinting and body weight exercises will also enhance strength qualities. However, we should not ignore that in many arenas of team sport competition, the athlete must produce high levels of force to overcome much more than their own body weight against the influence of gravity. Such examples include a football player breaking a tackle, hockey players fighting over the puck, basketball players rebounding under the boards, and wrestlers during match competition.

These examples substantiate the requirement for the application of external high stressor intensity during training. You should observe the following variables during the planning, as well as the execution, of a high-intensity exercise performance:

• Demonstrated body control and correct posture adjustments with associated proper technical proficiency as exercise intensity is progressively increased.
• Demonstrated applicable executed exercise velocity.
• Successful execution of the programmed exercise training intensities as related to the physical quality standards of the sport of participation.

The physical quality standards of the sport of participation are utilized as a reference to establish a foundation for the preparation of the athlete to eventually compete in practice alongside their peers and on game day against their opponent. An example of the strength and explosive strength standards for the sport of American football can be found in figure 2

There is also an important relationship with regard to the programmed increase in high-intensity exercise and the athlete’s ability to control and maintain proper body posture(s) and technique during exercise execution. The acknowledgement of this relationship is essential to ensure for:

• Enhancement of the physical qualities necessary for optimal athletic performance.
• Sustained proper technical exercise proficiency resulting in the athlete’s optimal application of force against the external resistance.
• The velocity (i.e., rate of force development, impulse) at which the athlete’s executed force is applied.
• Physiological and biomechanical efficiency, for the proper distribution of the applied stressor upon the athlete.
• Safety from injury.

Another consideration often asked about is how high a level of applied stress is enough. In addition to the physical quality standards of the sport of participation, a balance should exist between these sport standards and guideline limitations placed upon high-intensity applications. Using the squat exercise as an example, the general rule for the athletes trained under our supervision is a full squat exercise weight intensity limitation of twice their body weight. Once accomplished, the emphasis is placed upon exercise execution at higher velocities at this same high (as well as all) exercise intensity.

This philosophy of training transpired during an “ah-ha” moment while working with my good friend, Hall of Fame S&C Coach Johnny Parker, during many off-seasons with his NFL New York Giants players. During the 1980s, Coach Parker and I also met and worked with a former Soviet weightlifter and weightlifting coach named Grigori Goldstein. On one particular occasion, we witnessed a NY Giants player who had executed a successful 425-pound squat at a body weight of 178 pounds. When Coach Goldstein was asked how to continue to make this particular player stronger, he responded: “You don’t need to make him stronger. You need to have him move the bar faster.” Progressing this player through what would eventually become Vermeil’s Hierarchy of Athletic Development would be much more beneficial for his overall athletic performance than continuing to focus on making him stronger.

There are exceptions to every rule, and the two-time body weight squat limit is no exception. There was an outstanding running back with the Giants for many seasons (he was also a member of the 1986 Super Bowl Championship team). At a stature of 5 feet 7 inches and a body weight of 202 pounds, this player also performed a 620-pound full squat. If his squat exercise limitations had been set to two times body weight—i.e., 404 pounds—he likely would not have physically endured a single NFL season or had his outstanding NFL career.

All athletes should be evaluated for high-intensity limitations and exceptions based on such criteria as their stature, the standards of the sport, and their position of participation. Share on X

In hindsight, when considering the “risk vs. reward” with regard to a high-stress application, Coach Parker and I often discuss whether this player would have been as successful if his squat exercise intensity had been limited to 500 pounds or 550 pounds with increased barbell velocities versus three times his body weight. All athletes should be evaluated for high-intensity limitations and exceptions based on such criteria as the athlete’s stature, the standards of the sport, and the position of participation. For example, does an Olympic fencer need to lift as much weight as a football lineman?

Lifting Heavy Weights In-Season

During the aforementioned discussions, there is increased apprehension over the inclusion of high-intensity exercise performance during in-season training. This concern appears to be centered upon the inclusion of team practice, as well as game day competition. However, we may then ask, if an athlete executes high-intensity exercises during their off-season training, where they may also achieve personal records (PR’s), why then during the most important time of the year is there a hesitation to prescribe high-intensity training?

If you establish in-season training intensity limitations at, let’s say, 80% of the athlete’s previous off-season physical performance, why then have the athletes perform so diligently during the off-season? Where is the logic to attaining substantial off-season physical achievements and not at least maintaining, if not continuing to improve, these achievements during the competitive season? Would any sport coach instruct any athlete to limit their physical abilities to an 80% effort during game day performance? Is a 20% reduction in effort considered acceptable? If a reduction in effort is not deemed acceptable, why then is any programmed deficit during the in-season training considered not acceptable as well? Not only will a weaker athlete likely perform at less than optimal, but a continual loss of strength due to the physicality of a long season in conjunction with a steady application of a shortfall (inadequate) intensity may also set the stage for possible injury.

The philosophy for in-season high-intensity stress application was introduced to me in the fall of 1996. Coach Parker was now with the NFL New England Patriots, and numerous discussions led to high-intensity weight applications of 90% or greater at appropriate training periods during this particular in-season. At the conclusion of the 1996 NFL competitive season, 35 New England players set PR’s in one or more of the foundation exercises (i.e., squats, cleans, bench press, etc.) as the team entered the NFL playoffs. Wouldn’t we, as coaches, aspire for our athletes to physically “peak” at the most important time of the year, the time of the post-season playoffs? This same Patriots team eventually competed in that same post-season Super Bowl XXXI.

The Relationship Between Exercise Volume and Intensity

Higher programmed exercise volumes have an inverse relationship to exercise intensity. As an example, if an athlete performs a squat exercise with 100 pounds for 10 repetitions and their exercise descent and ascent are both 2 feet in distance (a total distance traveled of 4 feet), we would calculate the total work performed (work = force x distance) as 100 pounds x 4 feet x 10 repetitions = 4,000 ft. lbs. If the same athlete squatted 150 pounds for five repetitions, the work performed would now be 150 pounds x 4 feet x 5 reps = 3,000 ft. lbs., resulting in a 25% less overall quantity of work performed (i.e., 3,000 vs. 4,000 ft. lbs.). However, the same athlete would also execute a 50% higher quality of work (i.e., 150 lbs. vs. 100 lbs. per repetition). Appropriately programmed in-season high-intensity exercise execution corresponds with a lower volume of work. Reduced exercise volumes also help avoid the excessive physical fatigue that may lead to many physical consequences.

Appropriately programmed in-season high-intensity exercise execution corresponds with a LOWER volume of work. Share on X

Using the above example, I present two in-season squat workouts (after warm-up) below. Figure 3a represents an actual college football in-season squat workout limited to 80% exercise intensity. Figure 3b represents a higher exercise intensity in-season squat workout. Both programs are based upon an athlete’s demonstrated 500-pound squat performance.

Figure 3a demonstrates that an increased amount of work (17,200 ft. lbs. vs. 15,500 ft. lbs.) may be achieved with the programming of lighter weights, thus enhancing the athlete’s ability to perform more exercise repetitions. However, the average squat set quality of work is approximately 21% lighter in the limited intensity workout when compared to figure 3b, the high-intensity workout (362.5 lbs. vs. 403.8 lbs. respectively). A lesson imparted upon me by both legendary track coach Charlie Francis and my good friend Derek Hansen is a concept that is easy for many coaches and rehabilitation professionals to understand, but difficult for them to trust. Physical performance at 90–95% of an athlete’s abilities is still submaximal; thus, these high intensities are still safe to perform. The attempt to execute excessive exercise volumes at these high intensities is what subjects the athlete to possible injury.

Physical performance at 90–95% of an athlete’s abilities is still submaximal. Thus, these high intensities are still safe to perform, as long as the exercise volume isn’t excessive. Share on X

In addition, a greater amount of accumulative in-season exercise volume (work) may eventually lead to excessive physical fatigue, setting the stage for overtraining, poor recovery, decreased on-the-field performance, and eventual soft tissue type injury. An additional consequential risk that low-intensity, higher volume workouts may present is the illusion of a light workout session when the reality is often the opposite. As demonstrated in figure 3a, lower intensity “light” work sessions may transform to “heavy” work sessions due to the greater-than-anticipated quantity of work performed. It is acknowledged that during the course of training, athletes require days off and “unloading” workouts to assist in recovery and avoid overtraining. However, athletes remain “fresh” by maintaining (as well as enhancing) their strength levels during the competitive season, not by persistently resting.

Do Athletes Sprint Enough in Season?

There also appears to be a reluctance to incorporate appropriate levels of high-velocity (intensity) sprinting during the competitive season. Once again, this hesitation appears to be due to the concern for injury, and more specifically, the onset of soft tissue injury (i.e., hamstring strains). Sprinting is required not only for enhanced athletic performance, but the prevention of high-velocity injury as well.

Sprinting is required not only for enhanced athletic performance, but the prevention of high-velocity injury as well. Share on X

If an athlete isn’t acclimated to the repetitive high-velocity movements that occur during practice, competition, and the prolonged competitive season, how then could there be expectations for them to remain healthy under such stressful physical circumstances? The following are benefits to incorporating high-intensity (velocity) sprinting during the athlete’s in-season training.

1. Enhances running velocity – Stating the obvious, to maintain and possibly enhance an athlete’s running velocity, the athlete needs to run at high velocity. Sprinting is the purest plyometric activity and will enhance the physical qualities of strength, explosive strength, and elastic strength. Although some athletes may rarely achieve 100% of their maximal velocity during their sport of participation, the enhanced starting abilities (i.e., first step) and improved acceleration capabilities associated with high-velocity sprinting will also help contribute to optimal athletic performance.
2. Enhances the speed reserve – Higher running velocities will also enhance submaximal running velocities (i.e., 80% of an improved running velocity is faster than 80% of the previous lower running velocity). The athlete will also improve their physiological and energy efficiency (economy) at these new high and submaximal running velocities, as well as consistently maintain these velocities throughout the game day competition.
3. Improves neuromuscular efficiency and timing – Sprinting will provide a stimulus to both enhance and “fine-tune” rate coding, contractile velocities, and efficiency of recruitment. Maximal muscle activation of the medial (semitendinosus) and lateral (biceps femoris) hamstring muscles occurs at different musculotendon lengths⁷ and at different time intervals during the running cycle. Precise timing for these differences in activation to happen is crucial for both performance and injury prevention.

In addition, the lateral hamstring muscle, the biceps femoris, consists of two heads, a long head and a short head (figure 4). These two distinct anatomical components of the muscle also have two different and distinct nerve innervations, the tibial nerve (long head) and the common peroneal nerve (short head). For the athlete to maintain and/or achieve the proper neuromuscular efficiency of the medial and lateral hamstring muscles, as well as the proper timing of the nerve innervations to the long and short heads of the biceps femoris muscle at high velocity, the athlete must perform at high velocity.

4. Improves the coactivation index of the lower extremity musculature – The coactivation index is an additional neuromuscular consideration for training at high velocities. During slow-velocity movements, including those with applied high intensity, agonist and antagonist muscle groups work amicably together over the prolonged exercise period to stabilize the joint(s), demonstrating a coactivation index (ratio) of approximately 1:1. High-velocity movements are dependent upon brief periods of time requiring a prominent contribution from the agonists, while the opposing antagonists must demonstrate a lower level of activity.

The “quieter” the antagonists, the less opposing they will be, resulting in a higher contribution of the agonists for ideal force application. This emphasized contribution by the agonist muscle groups corresponds to a shift in the coactivation ratio, favoring the agonists muscle groups. The highest skilled athletes are those with the ability to completely relax their antagonist muscle groups during high-velocity activities, as rigid and “rough” movements are likely the result of poor coordination between agonists and antagonists.

One of the Last Advantages

The programming of high-intensity training via the application of unaccustomed stresses is necessary for physical adaptation to transpire. The application of high stressors during off-season training will continue to improve the physical qualities necessary for optimal athletic performance. In-season high-intensity training will maintain, if not continue to improve, the physical qualities attained during the off-season training. The appropriate incorporation of high-velocity in-season sprinting will also maintain and possibly improve the athlete’s running velocity.

Appropriate in-season sprinting will also assist in the prevention of soft tissue injury, due to maintaining or enhancing the athlete’s strength levels, intermuscular coordination, and neuromuscular timing. As many athletic teams have off-season training requirements as well as training facilities available to them, the application of high-intensity stressors during in-season training may be one of the few advantages remaining in competitive team sports.

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References

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4. Watts, D. “A Brief Review on the Role of Maximal Strength in Change of Direction Speed.” The Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning. 2015; 23: 100–108.

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7. Higashihara, A., Nagano, Y., Takashi, O., et al. “Relationship between the peak time of hamstring stretch and activation during sprinting.” European Journal of Sports Science. 2016; 16: 36–41.