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Long-term athletic development (LTAD) is “habitual development of ‘athleticism’ over time to improve health and fitness, enhance physical performance, reduce the relative risk of injury, and develop the confidence and competence of all youth.” Many groups and organizations have espoused the implementation of LTAD, such as Canadian Sport for Life, the USOC, and the NSCA.

LTAD and quality coaching are both part of the process of positive youth development. LTAD is a framework, not specific directions for unknowing coaches to follow. The framework is important because it:

• Identifies that there is a problem with how adults are providing quality experiences for kids.
• Shares evidence (both research-based and practical application) that the current youth sports system (fitness and physical activity, too) is flawed.
• Creates the structure with which youth practitioners can develop their system that works with the kids they coach, using the LTAD framework as a template.

Applying LTAD with Youth Tennis Players

My current sports environment provides the opportunity to train kids from 10-18 years old, primarily. They participate in one (or more) of three ways: summer sports camps, year-round sports programming, and fitness center usage. For example, they can sign up for tennis under USTA classifications for early development programs, which matches their playing ability, age, and tennis placement.

The club uses this model, which has a progression for the Junior Tennis Pathway that looks something like this:

• Munchkins: (3-4 y/o)
• Red: three levels (5-8 y/o)
• Orange: two levels (8-10 y/o)
• Green: two levels (10-12 y/o)
• Yellow: two levels (12+ y/o)
• High Performance/High School

The program is largely technical and tactical, and—according to USTA—seeks to get more kids playing tennis and kids playing more tennis. Luckily, the forward-thinking tennis staff believes in LTAD and expands the USTA concepts to allow me to integrate fitness training for all age levels during summer camps, and all year long before or after practice. This has helped the aspiring athletes make the connection between fitness and sport success, and learn to enjoy movement in other contexts.

I begin by teaching the ABCs of movement: athletic stance, body awareness, and cardinal planes of motion. No matter what sport the kids play, they need to know the universal athletic stance, and how moving their body, either with a racquet, lacrosse stick, or bat, changes their need to keep their balance over their base of support. Then we begin to move in all three planes of motion from the athletic stance. We learn this in a fun, informal environment with games, child-led or child-selected activities and challenges, and traditional exercises and sports skills.

Additionally, youth ages 10-15 can become Beasts! Using what they have learned in group sessions, they earn their Beast badge, which is the name they created (with multi-colored wristbands emblazoned with “Certified Beast” on them) to signify that they could now use the fitness center with their parents (10- and 11-year-olds) or on their own (12- to 15-year-olds). In this way, the youngsters are active all year, engaging in year-round free play, semi-structured play, and structured play. Many of these kids play school sports and/or other sports at the club, so an LTAD culture is developing and parents are seeing increases in both performance in sports and interest in fitness.

In our program, we focus on all 10 fitness attributes across three levels:

• Level 1

–      Rules and etiquette

–      Athletic stance

–      Body awareness

–      Cardinal planes of movement

–      Instruction in exercise technique for a variety of movements

• Level 2

–      Continued instruction in additional exercises

–      How growth and development influence exercise selection

–      PHV: pros and cons

–      Training age

• Level 3

–      How to design LTAD programs

–      How to teach exercise technique to others

–      Sport relevance

We continually train all 10 fitness attributes, in accordance with the Composite Youth Development Model from the NSCA LTAD Position Statement.

All fitness attributes are trained across childhood and adolescence. Our movement, skill, game, and sport application model affords us the flexibility to incorporate sport-relevant training for all kids, all the time. After only one year of implementation, we are finding that the youth in our program participate because they have fun, interact with their friends, and develop skills and strength. All these positive findings correspond with the top reasons kids play sports, indicating that we are not only developing their athleticism, but we are giving them ownership of the process so that it is their motivation to continue. This is key to promoting lifetime participation in physical activity.

Our program is in line with recommendations for all fitness attributes, including developing speed. Istvan Balyi’s LTAD model, modified by the United States Olympic Committee as the American Development Model, shows speed as having two specific “windows” in which it is thought to develop faster than in other periods. The first window is between ages 7 and 9 in boys and 6 and 8 in girls, and again from 13-16 in boys and 11-13 in girls.

The Youth Composite Development Models and the Unchained Fitness blog on “windows of opportunity” both indicate that any fitness attribute is largely trainable across childhood and adolescence. This means that youth sport coaches and strength and conditioning coaches should train all fitness attributes for all kids.

Youth sport and strength & conditioning coaches should train all fitness attributes for all kids, says @rihoward41. Share on X

Due to the pillar that says that growth and development is nonlinear, it is difficult to establish when a “window” (“sensitive period” is thought to be a better term) exists. It is better to give every youth the opportunity to improve speed as well as every other fitness attribute (fundamental motor skills, sport-specific skills, mobility, agility, power, strength, hypertrophy, endurance, and metabolic conditioning) at all stages of growth and development for children and adolescents (roughly ages 6-19).

LTAD Foundations

Nonlinear growth and development of youth helps validate that kids are unique and different from one another—biologically, physically, and psychosocially. Therefore, it is impossible to say that all kids on a team should be doing a specific drill or exercise, or that a magic formula or gold standard applies. For these reasons, LTAD is a framework that was never intended to tell coaches specifically what to do. It is incumbent on coaches to learn as much as possible to better understand pediatric principles that can be applied to kids of varying levels and abilities.

The NSCA Long-Term Athletic Development Position Statement provides 10 pillars of LTAD, which can be summarized as:

• The health and well-being of all kids is the central tenet of LTAD.
• Development of fundamental motor skills and muscle strength are paramount to successful participation in sport, physical education, and physical activity.
• Kids should be routinely provided with opportunities to develop health-fitness and skills-fitness capacities across childhood and adolescence.
• Kids do not grow at the same rate and growth is not a linear progression.
• All kids deserve an opportunity to play, be active, and participate in sport at every age and ability.
• Kids should be exposed to a variety of sports, games, and physical activities (play, chores, etc.).
• While focusing on positive sports and physical activity, it is important to remember proper injury prevention protocols and practices for youth.
• Testing is only a snapshot of performance on that given day, so it must be used prudently when determining ability. Testing should reflect overall abilities.
• All kids should be introduced to strength and conditioning, which can be integrated into sports practice, so that they develop positive healthy habits, learn to enjoy strength and conditioning, and get in shape to play—not vice versa.
• Coaches need to understand pediatric principles of youth growth and development, including pedagogical instruction, to best serve youth.

You can see, therefore, that a coach cannot simply read the NSCA Long-Term Athletic Development Position Statement (or any other LTAD construct, for that matter) and expect to have ready-made practice plans for Monday afternoon! It should be obvious by now, however, that LTAD helps provide a reference point for what coaches need to do for all aspiring athletes. An athlete needs to be defined as anyone with a body; meaning that we work with kids of all ages and abilities, not just who we regard as elite athletes.

#LTAD helps provide a reference point for what coaches need to do for all aspiring athletes, says @rihoward41. Share on X

It has been suggested that “elite” is a word that should not apply in the world of youth sports, as so many growth and maturational influences can change the developmental outcome. Instead, focus on physical literacy. According to the International Physical Literacy Association, physical literacy “is the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life.” Therefore, as coaches we need to promote the value of sports as part of physical literacy, recognizing physical literacy as a key component of positive youth development.

When looking through the lens of positive youth development, it is extremely important for coaches to promote sports, play, and other physical activity. For example, the Ten Pillars of a Good Childhood recognizes the importance of play, physical activity, positive experiences, social interactions, and positive youth-supportive communities. If we believe that our current sports model does exactly that, then how do we explain that 70% of kids drop out of sport by age 13 and 25% of kids never play a sport? For comparison, video games are played by 97% of youth—is it because we have not created a youth-centric sports experience?

Similarly, the Search Institute’s 40 developmental assets for youth clearly indicates that the NSCA Position Statement pillar on the health and well-being of youth goes far beyond the physical component and includes the physical, social, and environmental well-being of youth. This should remind all coaches that sports and other forms of physical activity are one cog on the Wellness Wheel (for example, the William Diamond Middle School version).

It is important for all coaches to recognize their role in overall positive youth development, says @rihoward41. Share on X

The Wellness Wheel includes the physical domain, but also recognizes the importance of the social, emotional, environmental, intellectual, and spiritual domains. If any of the dimensions are undervalued or not included, the wheel is flat. It is important for all coaches to recognize their role in overall positive youth development, which is quite often promoted through sports and other physical activity.

LTAD Summit and Beyond

Despite the evidence for the 10 Pillars of LTAD, there continue to be coaches that think that LTAD is irrelevant and that LTAD is just coaching. Really? Then why are we still plagued with coaches that:

• Yell at kids.
• Play only the most talented kids.
• Overschedule games and under-schedule development.
• Use exercise as punishment.
• Have too much volume in their program.
• Use maximum lifting with kids that can’t properly perform the lift.
• Focus on the product of winning rather than the process of positive youth development.
• Use repetitive drills rather than create fun, game-type experiences.
• Think they are “dealing” with parents instead of engaging parents.
• Feel that their sport is the center of the universe, not the kids.
• Over-specialize kids too early.
• Do not focus on the whole child because they refuse to bridge the gap between science and practical application.

Even if they are volunteers, coaches should invest in their role by better understanding LTAD, to do the best job possible.

Check out opportunities for professional development within the sporting community and from other youth-serving organizations. Many National Governing Bodies (NGBs) of Olympic sports have developed implementation strategies specific to their sport. Many of these strategies are primarily technical and tactical, so there remains some work to be done on physical training, but there is information available. Coaching organizations such as the US Center for Coaching Excellence, USOC/Athlete-Development/Coaching-Education, National Alliance for Youth Sports, and Positive Coaching Alliance all have excellent materials for youth coaches.

A Long Term Athletic Development Summit was held in May to address the growing concern that youth sports are not youth-centric; that physical literacy, daily physical activity, and free play are being lost at the expense of overstructured sports; and that all youth practitioners and stakeholders need to be at the same table. Attendees included NGBs, the NSCA as a featured national organization, and local practitioners who came together to promote a grassroots “boots on the ground” implementation strategy for LTAD.

The structure was such that all attendees shared their experiences and strategies for implementing LTAD, provided input to one another at roundtables, and as a group, constructed feedback on sessions for direct application to practitioners. The day concluded with an accountability town hall exercise, where all attendees were asked what they would do to help bring LTAD to the population in their school, rec center, gym, community, etc. Accountability statements will be checked throughout the year and reviewed at next year’s session.

The summit enabled participants to not only share with one another, but to be part of the process of taking LTAD to the next level. Collaborations among participants to further the widespread implementation of LTAD are underway. LTAD Summits are being planned in other key locations throughout the coming year.

#LTAD is a vital framework to ensure all kids can grow, learn, and play to the best of their ability, says @rihoward41. Share on X

We need LTAD now more than ever. It is time to band together all positive youth development organizations and agencies to share the message that physical literacy through sports, play, and physical education is paramount to the growth and development of kids. LTAD is a vital framework to ensure that all kids can grow, learn, and play to the best of their ability, and that we as coaches, parents, and community stakeholders must make it happen. We need to act and increase accountability to make LTAD the focus of youth sports, physical education, physical activity, and play.

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This article relates to fitness, program design, and biomechanical proficiency. The systematic approach given here comes from my best attempt to provide a logical and useful model for coaches to follow. The ultimate problem with this and any other article is that the central ideas will stem from certain starting assumptions that I have in my head. If those starting assumptions are accurate, then the ideas put forth here will probably be very correct; however, if my starting assumptions are off, then things will be inaccurate, and clever people will pick this apart.

The overall purpose of this article is to provide the reader with training movement biomechanics competency checklists. These checklists exist to evaluate how closely the performance of an exercise compares with the archetype for that movement. I will do my best to avoid any semblance of smoke and mirrors, garbage terminology usage (e.g., “activation,” “functional movement,” “muscle balance”), or any other ambiguous approach that many “movement gurus” tend to utilize in their explanations of what constitutes proper movement. 

A Trip Down the Yellow Brick Road

One of my favorite stories is The Wizard of Oz. It resonates with me strongly because the audience is led to believe that there is an all-powerful magical being who is in complete control of the great city of Oz. Oz has pomp and panache. Its buildings are large and ornate, its decorations are over the top, and the wizard inside its great tower is great and powerful. When we are inside the palace of the Wizard, and his awe-inspiring appearance is at its zenith, the curtain is pulled back and we see that the whole operation has been nothing but smoke and mirrors. The Wizard is nothing more than a man.

This story is a parable for lessons that we all learn in life. Every institution, every empire, every seemingly invincible juggernaut of an operation is nothing more than a human invention, riddled with human errors. Because of this, my advice is to try to avoid meeting your heroes in life, because they’ll probably disappoint you by not living up to the image of them you had in your mind.

This lesson applies to science, enterprise, technology, and government, to name just a few human-derived systems. When you meet the people at the top, and find out why they do things the way they do and what explanations they have for why things work as they do, you’ll probably realize that the world is held together by nothing more than duct tape and bubble gum.

Even though most things operate as if this world is the Wild West, humans have done amazing things—practically incomprehensible things, when you really think about it—and every now and then the person at the top of the food chain seems to truly live the embodiment of their message. There is something about us as humans that drives us to want to believe in things, including the belief that some of us have thought of perfect ideas. That pursuit of perfection and reaching towards the ideal of a concept or expression drives many of us to be the best versions of ourselves.

I argue that our ability to believe in an ideology, and strive towards seeing visions through, is the greatest of all humanity’s gifts, and the primary ingredient that distinguishes us from the other animals on the planet. In all endeavors, we continue to try to approach the ideal way for that domain to function. If you are reading this article, it is highly likely that you can connect to this concept as it applies to exercise and sport science.

Solving the Kinetics Puzzle with Programming

The kinetics side of the biomechanics puzzle is the easy side. We can measure forces, loads, velocities, and durations of movement easily and precisely. The kinematics component of biomechanics is the descriptive element. With kinematics, we describe the shape the body assumes, the types of movement it makes, and the direction it moves in. The problem with kinematics is that there are far less objective measures.

Measuring how much an organism, or a joint of the organism, moves in the sagittal plane versus the frontal plane versus the transverse plane is a much harder task, and is riddled with ambiguity. In regard to sport performance and execution of movements in a training environment, kinematics is critically important, as proper technique, good movement, and optimal positioning are the foundation of everything, in many ways. The gray areas of what constitutes the windows of things, like “quality movement,” “excellent form,” and “great technique” bother me, and I want to try to hang some objective markers on these things so that coaches have a systematic ability to determine if a movement was done properly.

The primary system that controls our movement expression is the nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. At the top of the CNS resides the cortex, which is the most modern component, capable of exerting control over seemingly every subsystem of the CNS. Within the cortex are the sensory and motor divisions.

The premise we start from here regarding biomechanics is that movement is a neural process, and the cortex is the king of the nervous system and equally a sensory and motor system. Based on this starting assumption, I contend that a key feature of determining biomechanics proficiency is considering sensory and motor components when grading movement. In essence, people need to feel certain things that are the “right” things to feel in order to come as close as possible to the archetype for that particular movement. If a movement looks good to you, but the individual performing the motion feels things that do not correspond to the proper execution of that movement, then there is a biomechanical mismatch, and optimal movement is not being displayed.

If movement looks good but an athlete doesn’t feel the right things there is biomechanical mismatch. Share on X

In this systematic approach, I provide you with motor competencies for major movements, and sensory competencies as well. The motor competencies are the visual observational assessment coming from the coach. The coach looks for the proper alignment of certain bony structures, as well as joints, that are specific to certain movements. The sensory competencies are what the athlete says they feel/felt from the movement.

I should state here that when athletes execute movements with either enormous loading or the highest possible velocities, the sensory component will be much less prominent, or impossible to identify. The slower and lighter the movement, the greater the possibility for the participant to observe and report the sensory component.

In this article, I cover the motor competencies first, and then I talk about the sensory competencies afterwards. First, let’s try to go through some fundamental premises that can serve as overarching guideposts.

An important driving premise that governs motor competencies with biomechanics is the zero-sum phenomenon. When viewing the skeleton in the sagittal plane on the posterior side, we see alternating lordotic and kyphotic curves:

• The occiput bows out in a kyphotic curve.
• The cervical spine is lordotic.
• The thoracic spine is kyphotic.
• The lumbar spine is lordotic.
• The sacrum and glutes are kyphotic.
• The glute/ham tie-in is lordotic.
• The hamstrings are kyphotic.
• The popliteal space is lordotic.
• The calves are kyphotic.
• The Achilles is lordotic.
• The calcaneus is kyphotic.
• The arch of the foot is lordotic.
• The ball of the foot is kyphotic.
• The proximal toe is lordotic.
• The distal toe is kyphotic.

This allows for the demonstration of sagittal centering. Sagittal centering is critical for a bipedal animal to be able to erect itself and remain upright with the greatest amount of ease during the forward propulsion of locomotion. When thinking about centering, the easiest way to envision the concept is to look strictly at the axial skeleton. You are looking for the middle of the skull to be positioned directly over the middle of the pelvic floor when examining someone from a profile viewing perspective. If you see someone with a skull projected out in front of their pelvic floor, this person has lost sagittal centering.

There is tremendous debate in the worlds of fitness development and strength sports regarding deadlifting with a round back. This debate seems unable to come to any point of agreement because people are missing the most important underlying concept of centering. If the skull is in line with the pelvic floor, then seeing rounding in the upper back is great, because the person is displaying the natural human condition of kyphosis in the thoracic spine. If you see a rounded back, but the head is way in front of the pelvic floor, this is not a good situation.

In the rounded back deadlift debate, people are missing the most important centering concept. Share on X

The great powerlifter Konstantin Konstantinovs is a great point of reference for sagittal centering with a kyphotic thoracic spine. He doesn’t lift with a dangerous position because there is alignment of the cranium over the pelvis.

In this image of a rounded back deadlift, we see that the individual has a hyperextended neck, which makes the middle of the skull go up/backwards, and directs the pelvic floor down/forward. There is essentially no unity with the orientation/direction of the two ends of the axial skeleton; thus, no centering from a sagittal perspective.

The concept of the zero-sum phenomenon and centering is also a frontal plane phenomenon, and one that very few coaches are aware of. When viewing our skeleton from a frontal plane perspective, we need alternating adduction and abduction at all the major bony regions on one side of our body to keep our center of mass inside our base of support from a side-to-side standpoint. If I examine someone standing at rest, with the majority of weight on their right foot and their axial skeleton shifted in space so that it is directly above their right foot in this resting stance position, I should see the following:

• The right calcaneus is supinating (which is essentially abduction).
• The right femur is adducting.
• The ramus of the ischium is abducting.
• The iliac crest is adducting.
• The right half of the thorax is abducting.
• The right humerus is adducting.

The notion of the right thorax abducting is an odd concept for many to think about. If you are standing primarily on your right foot, and your axial skeleton shifts so that it is centered over your right foot, your center of mass would be at approximately L5, S1. The right side of your thorax (picture your right nipple) would be moving away from that midline (midline is a plumb line going vertical through L5, S1, and your right nipple is moving away from it). The left thorax is moving towards that plumb line going through L5, S1. If you want to see what this looks like, look at the statue of David.

At the most simplistic level of movement, all particles in the universe need to have a concentration gradient—an arrangement of something being uphill compared to something else being downhill—for movement to occur. The cells of our body take advantage of this principle by creating membranes. Membranes separate regions of a cell from one another, and often act as a screen through which particles have to move. It is common for cells to segregate ions, such as sodium, in a high concentration state on one side of a membrane, and then take advantage of the tendency of that ion to move down its concentration gradient to power a cellular behavior. Biology is built on the microcosm being the model upon which the macrocosm copies in a more complex way.

From a macro perspective, the human body takes advantage of a similar sort of concentration gradient with frontal plane behavior. If the mass of the axial skeleton can be sequestered to one side of the base of support and raise the center of mass on that side, then the stage is set to be able to drop center of mass and shift to the other side. This notion of raising and dropping center of mass and shifting the axial skeleton back and forth in a side-to-side manner is at the heart of pendular bipedal walking and the spring mass model of human running locomotion.

In the statue, David has raised his center of mass on the right side of his axial skeleton (his right pelvic floor is higher than the left, and the top of his right neck is higher than the left), and he has shifted his mass over his right foot. David would be able to almost effortlessly propel himself forward and to his left side from this leveraged position. There are times in sport where we see frontal plane centering demonstrated to near perfection. The following image of an Olympic speed skater shows the concept about as well as anything possibly could.

The transverse plane is built on the motions of internal and external rotation, along with horizontal abduction and adduction. For the body to be able to rotate optimally, the foundational planes of sagittal and frontal must be in place. When rotational athletes are centered in the sagittal and frontal planes, spin can occur with the least amount of resistance, and with the most optimal range of motion. When baseball pitchers cannot center in the sagittal and frontal planes, they tend to fall off towards the first base or third base foul lines on the follow-through of their pitch.

The foundational planes of sagittal and frontal must be in place for the body to rotate optimally. Share on X

The image of the speed skater above is incredibly educational for this concept. The skater is centered, and is able to display rotation of the rib cage and optimal horizontal abduction and adduction of the humerus. Transverse plane movements in sports are incredibly diverse; however, it seems as though most athletes need to be able to load into each hip in the transverse plane, and then come out of that hip in an explosive manner. This is essentially the concept behind power in a baseball swing, a golf swing, a hockey slap shot, throwing, punching, and kicking. When athletes attempt to come out of their hip in the concentric component of these explosive activities, there is a need for dissociation between the pelvis and thorax.

Typically, the pelvis needs to initiate the concentric activity, while the thorax lags from a timing perspective. This separation between pelvis and thorax is the most critical element of transverse plane athleticism. This capability is built upon sagittal and frontal centering, and the ability to shift the axial skeleton side to side over each base of support in the frontal plane. When athletes are capable of centering and shifting, they tend to be able to dissociate joints from one another in the transverse plane.

This dissociation is really the key to optimal kinematic capabilities in striking and running sports. The pelvis should be able to rotate to the left as the thorax rotates right and the neck rotates left. The appendicular skeleton should be able to horizontally abduct and adduct, and internally and externally rotate through full range. The appendicular skeleton should also feature the same mirror asymmetry as I talked about in the frontal plane section.

When watching a great major league pitcher deliver a baseball to home plate, during the cocking phase you should see the arm holding the ball flexed at the elbow, externally rotated at the humerus, and supinated at the wrist. The glove-side arm should be extended, internally rotated, and pronated. When the pitcher delivers the ball to the plate, the ball-side arm will extend, internally rotate, and pronate. The glove-side arm will flex, externally rotate, and supinate. This matching asymmetry of the appendicular skeleton will not occur optimally unless the axial skeleton is centered in the sagittal and frontal planes.

Applying the Biomechanical Plane Concepts in Coaching

Now that we have covered these critical principles, I would like to lay out the motor competencies of the planes. In the first article of this two-part series, I discussed kinematics as having three stances associated with sports and training actions: bilateral symmetrical, asymmetrical front/back, and asymmetrical lateral. If you understand the motor competencies of the planes, the same concepts apply to all stances.

The brain stores the memory of movement itself, and that memory is a constant. Some call this memory an engram. This memory will unfold in an appropriate manner to fit the environmental context in which an athlete is presently involved. If someone understands the motor competencies of the frontal plane, they can unfold the memory in any stance or situation.

If you understand the frontal plane’s motor competencies you can unfold the memory in any situation. Share on X

Baseball shortstops do not need to practice every derivation of turning a double play to know how to perform each version in a game. Such a feat is impossible. If the player has the fundamental memory of catch, pivot, and throw, they can unfold the pattern appropriately for the specifics of the circumstances they find themselves in with a particular play. So, let’s start with the sagittal plane.

• Axial skeleton is centered from a profile view.
• Skull is over the middle of the pelvic floor.
• Pelvis is under the middle of the thorax.
• Athlete is capable of retracting the rib cage without the skull going forward of the pelvis.
• Athlete is capable of retracting the rib cage without the pelvis tipping into anterior tilt or migrating backwards of the cranium.

Let’s move on to the motor competencies of the frontal plane.

• Axial skeleton is capable of centering over each foot.
• Pelvis on stance-foot side ascends.
• Rib cage on stance-foot side descends.
• Superior part of pelvis on stance-foot side adducts.
• Thorax on stance-foot side abducts.
• Pelvis opposite stance-foot side descends.
• Rib cage opposite stance-foot side ascends.
• Superior part of pelvis opposite stance-foot side abducts.
• Thorax opposite stance-foot side adducts.
• Stance-side foot supinates.
• Stance-side femur adducts.
• Foot opposite stance-side pronates.
• Femur opposite stance-side abducts.

Finally, let’s cover the motor competencies of the transverse plane.

• Axial skeleton retains frontal and sagittal centering.
• Neck, thorax, and pelvis can rotate both left and right.
• Neck is capable of rotating in any direction as thorax and pelvis rotate in any direction.
• Thorax can rotate left as pelvis rotates right, and vice versa.
• Each humerus can horizontally abduct and adduct.
• Each humerus can internally and externally rotate.
• Each femur can horizontally abduct and adduct.
• Each femur can internally and externally rotate.
• Mirror asymmetry can present itself during striking, throwing, or locomotion movements.
• All structures are capable of dissociating from each other.

It is now time to shift gears and discuss the sensory competencies part of the puzzle. This is likely the most contentious part of this article series, as I’m essentially saying that you should feel certain things, and that it’s probably bad if you feel other things. It’s going to be really hard to dig up peer-reviewed evidence for these statements.

I can envision potential methods for testing this stuff out in a laboratory, but I do not believe anyone has ever done what I envision needs to be done to accurately test these concepts. I welcome contact from researchers who would be interested in measuring these concepts with laboratory equipment, because I would like to discuss what would need to be done in order to get it right.

Great athletes are sensory creatures and can tell you right away when they’re really feeling it. Share on X

Prior to diving straight into this material, I would say that “feel” is a critical part of sports. Great shooters in basketball need their shot to feel a certain way. Quarterbacks and pitchers want the ball to feel a specific way in their hand. Lifters know when they may have a PR-type day because the bar feels light. Great athletes are sensory creatures, and they can tell you right away when they’re really feeling it on a certain day. I’m also going to do my best to talk about the major muscles and bony segments that will cover the big hitters of sagittal, frontal, and transverse command of the body. These are fairly inarguable in terms of contributing to those directions from a movement perspective.

The Sagittal Plane

When discussing the sagittal plane, it is my contention that the sagittal plane is your anti-gravity plane. There are certain muscles of the body that allow you to become upright, and prevent you from falling on your face or back. In terms of holding the pelvis and thorax up against gravity, I contend that the hamstrings and abdominals are the best-suited muscle groups for the task. This is not to say that glutes do not participate in this, but glutes are power players in other planes. The glute max is the most important transverse plane muscle of the pelvis, and the glute med is a frontal plane conductor.

Hamstrings, and in particular the internal obliques, are the critical sagittal plane muscles for the axial skeleton. (Spinal erectors, rectus femoris, biceps, and triceps are critical, but for the ease of understanding the model, let’s not go there today.) If you try to prevent yourself from falling on your face, you need a muscle in the back to make sure this doesn’t happen, and if you try to prevent yourself from falling on your back, you need a muscle in the front to make sure this doesn’t happen.

When hamstrings act on the posterior side of the thorax and abs act on the anterior side of the thorax, we are able to hold ourselves upright in a centered state in the sagittal plane. The pelvis does not tip forward when hamstrings are holding onto the ischial tuberosity, and the thorax does not unhinge and fall backwards when abdominals are holding the ribcage and the ilium together on the front. So, when coaching individuals on being competent in the sagittal plane, I’m always looking to hear back from them that they feel their hamstrings and abs engaged in those activities.

When athletes do not feel their hamstrings engage, the center of mass is typically too far forward, and the weight is on the toes. To correct this, you have to encourage the athlete to find and feel the heels. When athletes do not feel abs engaging in exercises, the rib cage is typically elevated and flared forward.

Being able to retract and depress the rib cage without sending the head forward in space is typically the key to correcting this. Reaching the arms forward will typically accomplish the task with thorax positioning. Arms forward and weight on heels usually makes sagittal plane exercises look better, and this is why every coach in the world loves the goblet squat so much.

Sensory competencies in the sagittal plane are:

• Feel weight on their heels.
• Feel hamstrings engage.
• Feel abs engage.

Sensory incompetencies in the sagittal plane (usually due to the center of mass being too far forward) are:

• Weight on toes.
• Feels knees.
• Feels back.
• Feels neck.

Your ability to move well in any plane involves all of the planes working together. Planes are probably a lot like energy systems, where they’re all working together at the same time to some degree, just in different ratios based on task and context. The ability of a person to feel appropriate frontal plane sensory targets is usually strongly tied to possessing sagittal competency, and when they do not feel the right things, I spend most of my time working on the sagittal components of the person’s positioning.

Your ability to move well in any plane involves all of the planes working together. Share on X

The Frontal Plane

Frontal plane competency is largely a muscular phenomenon, but feeling the right part of each foot is also critical. Generally, you want to be on the heel of the stance-side foot and the medial arch of the other foot. Going upwards from there, you want to feel the adductors of the stance-side foot, the glute med of the opposite side, the frontal plane abs on the stance side, and the serratus anterior on the opposite side. Essentially, the competencies zig and zag across the body as we go up each segment.

Sensory competencies in the frontal plane are:

• Stance-side heel.
• Opposite-side medial arch.
• Stance-side adductor.
• Opposite-side glute med.
• Stance-side abs.
• Opposite-side serratus.

Sensory incompetencies in the frontal plane (probably lacking sagittal competencies or frontal centering) are:

• Lats firing up.
• Tensor fascia latae firing up.
• Neck muscles (SCM and/or scalenes) firing up.
• The person gripping with their hands and feet.
• The person not breathing.

The Transverse Plane

Finally, we come to the transverse plane. The ability to rotate is a critical capability for sports that require locomotion, striking, and throwing components. The axial skeleton is really the powerhouse of rotational drive. The glute max is the dominant transverse plane muscle of the pelvis. It rotates the pelvis in the contralateral direction from the stance-side foot during late-stance mechanics in the gait cycle. The ability of the glute max to maximize late-stance actions is tied to finishing the stride through the flexion moment of the great toe.

The ability to rotate is critical for sports that require locomotion, striking, and throwing. Share on X

During gait, a dissociation-based twist needs to occur between the pelvis and thorax. The rib cage needs to be able to rotate to the right when the right foot initially hits the ground in early stance, while the pelvis orients left. Sensing the ability of the rib cage to rotate in space is the other big axial skeleton piece involved with the transverse plane. The swinging of the arms causes the rotation of the rib cage, and in the previous example of the rib cage turning right while the pelvis turns left as the right foot lands on heel in early stance, we would see the left arm flexed, externally rotated, and supinated, while the right arm is extended, internally rotated, and pronated.

A similar mirror asymmetry concept would be present at the lower extremity, and we could say that the swinging of the legs drives the rotational movement of the pelvis. When the right foot hits the ground at early stance, the right lower extremity is flexed, abducted, externally rotated, and supinated, while the left lower extremity is extended, adducted, internally rotated, and pronated. The sensory competencies of the transverse plane are slightly more rooted in the skeleton as compared to the other planes. The glute max is the major muscle you want to feel, but other than that, you truly want to be aware of the first ray of the foot and the great toe, arm swing, and rib cage.

Sensory competencies of the transverse plane are:

• First ray of foot and great toe.
• Glute max.
• Arm swing (front-side mechanics).
• Rotation of the rib cage.

Sensory incompetencies of the transverse plane are:

• Outside of foot.
• Lumbar spine.
• Neck.

Many people reading this two-part series may be saying, “there’s no place like home, there’s no place like home,” as exposure to new models almost always causes immediate disgust, dismissal, and the desire to return to what you were doing before.

Final Thoughts on Program Design and Coaching

Most readers will probably don their ruby coaching slippers and go right back home after reading this article, and that’s fine with me. Too many people cower in their self-dug holes of “that’s the way we’ve always done it” or “my way’s working so why change it.” Others of you will probably see the potential importance of this system.

I don’t know whether any coaches are ready for this system, but I’m creating it for posterity. Share on X

I don’t know if anybody in the coaching world is really ready for this system. In a lot of ways, I’m writing this article and creating this system for posterity. As this stuff trickles out into the world little by little, and more coaches put little pieces of it together, it’ll slowly spread. In maybe five years, there will be people out there integrating the whole model into everything they do.

Therefore, I hope you got really excited, or really revolted, by this two-part series that attempted to pull the curtain back on the magic of the movement gurus, and create a sprawling, binary-objective, biomechanics-based system. For now, our trip through Oz is done. I hope you liked your exposure to color television, but now you’ll need to click your heels together three times and go back to black-and-white Kansas.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Speed is the game breaker.

We’re all familiar with the notion that speed is king. Sport science research has revealed that the fastest athletes sign bigger contracts and score more often than their slower peers.^1,2There is no substitute for raw speed—it decides the moments that matter.³Seeing an athlete at full stride leaving the opposition in their wake is a sight to behold and the holy grail of sports performance. Coaches will pay millions for it and the good news is, with proper programming, anyone can develop their sprint speed.

I always ask my athletes what’s more important: making the break, or capitalizing on it? If you don’t end up with points on the board after working hard to evade defenders, it was all for nothing. Opportunities that aren’t capitalized upon are worthless. With this in mind, as a coach, I place a huge emphasis on developing maximal linear sprint speed in my field sport athletes. When one of my athletes makes a break, I expect them to outrun their opposite number.

Furthermore, maximal sprint speed has a trickle-down effect and can positively influence both multi-directional qualities and general running capacity. While the required deceleration and postural skills, along with the perceptual-cognitive abilities of agility, are not developed unless trained more specifically, the development of nervous system capacity to power out of good positions and run around a defender are undoubtedly linked with top-end speed. In addition, an increase in maximal outputs will reduce the relative intensity of all other sub-maximal work, reducing reliance on anaerobic energy provisions for general movements on the field and, thus, improving overall fitness.

I don’t believe that speed is inherent and can’t be coached, and have the numbers to back me up, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

Some coaches argue that speed is inherent and cannot be coached. Most will pay a fortune to recruit speed, but dedicate little time to developing it within their existing athletes. I disagree with this notion and have the numbers to back it up. I work with athletes who have reduced their 40-meter sprint time by as much as 1.35 seconds. This would not have come about without proper coaching and programming.

All athletes can get faster than they already are, but like a tree from a seedling, it takes time to grow. While I have never seen a slow athlete become a fast athlete, there is always room for improvement, and that may be the difference between making and not making that game-breaking play.

Misconceptions About Speed

First, team sport is not all acceleration-based. The moments that matter most often require athletes to hit, or very nearly hit, absolute maximal sprint speed.³For example, in the sport I work in—rugby league—a quarter of all sprints are more than 20 meters and half are entirely linear in nature.⁴Ignoring the importance of straight line sprinting over longer distances can be costly, both in opportunities missed and injuries sustained. While many plays require short acceleration bursts, it’s the game-breaking plays—runaway tries or rundowns—that will require maximal outputs.

Next, sprint training isn’t necessarily any riskier than doing no sprint training. It doesn’t automatically lead to more hamstring or calf injuries. A properly designed and coached speed program will, in fact, address technique issues related to increased hamstring injury risk (overstriding), and build work capacity and robustness in your athletes by allowing them to adapt and become accustomed to high-speed running through a progressively overloaded program.^5,6You can do all the Nordic hamstring curls and Romanian deadlifts in the world, but if you have faulty sprint mechanics, you will always be at an increased risk of hamstring injury.

If you have faulty sprint mechanics, you will always be at an increased risk of #hamstring injury, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

The athletes who pull hamstrings in speed sessions are the same ones who would have done so at the most critical moment in a game anyway. So rather than allow it to happen on the field, leaving you a player short, diagnose and treat those at risk with a well-designed program. This is where a technical, rather than outcomes-based, approach becomes so important. After all, prevention is better than cure.

Lastly, repeated sprints aren’t speed training, they’re conditioning. To develop sprint speed, the legendary Canadian sprint coach Charlie Francis advised that each effort must be—at a bare minimum—above 95% of the athlete’s maximum. For this to then work, sufficient recovery periods must be in place. Otherwise, accumulated fatigue will lead to sub-maximal outputs and change your speed session into a conditioning workout.

Remember, rest is essential to the process of speed development. Team sports coaches often struggle to cope with the sight of athletes standing around during a rest period, and so I’ve developed a couple of sneaky tricks to ensure the session always looks busy enough to keep them off your back. More on this later.

I use a simple formula to prescribe rest periods with team sport athletes adapted from Dr. Mike Young at Athletic Lab. For every 10 meters of sprinting completed in any given rep, I aim for 30-60 seconds of rest. For example, a 40-meter sprint should be followed by a minimum of two minutes’ rest and ideally up to four minutes. The longer the better (so long as they don’t get cold in between reps).

Many coaches don’t know which speed qualities are the real game breakers and how to train for them, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

While the importance of speed is well-established, many coaches don’t know exactly which qualities are the real game breakers and how they should be trained. Numerous myths are perpetuated without the scientific evidence to support them and dispelling these misnomers is essential to better training.

Principles of Speed

So, how do I build my speed program for the best results? All my speed training is based upon four basic principles:

1. Exposure
2. Minimal effective dose
3. Bang for your buck drills
4. A KISS technical model

These principles guide my periodization, session design, workout flow, and instruction. Without these basic tenets, there is no speed program, so understanding what they are and how they work is essential to better outcomes.

Exposure

Exposure is a simple concept: To get better at something, you must practice it frequently. There’s no use throwing a speed session in every four to six weeks and expecting to make progress. Pushing a prowler and doing a hip lock drill in the weight room doesn’t address speed sufficiently either. You’ll end up repeating the same session and never progress either the technical components or the intensity of the training.

Exposure is a simple concept: To get better at something, you must practice it frequently, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

I expect all my athletes to touch or very nearly touch top speed at least twice per week, with an eye on getting it three times if possible.^5,6,7Consistent exposures throughout a season allows for maximal development, as well as an increase in work capacity and robustness—thus reducing injury risk.

Another way to approach exposure is through what Derek Hansen calls micro-dosing. I’m no expert on the topic and I’d suggest looking into Hansen’s work for more detail. However, the key philosophy behind micro-dosing is that the total weekly training volume is broken up into smaller, more frequent chunks. These chunks are then spread out, allowing for maximal intensity to be reached without accumulating too much fatigue in any one training session. For example, I have implemented “speed injections,” adapted from my time as an intern with the Australian Rugby Sevens program, and will “top up” my athletes with 40-meter sprint efforts when I am concerned that we may be underdone on our very high speed running volume.

Finally, on exposure, I use technical drills as often as possible. Maintaining consistent drilling themes throughout the season allows for repeated learning and progression of technical attractors. Having athletes think about hip lock, toe up, arm drive, and rhythm two to three times per week for a season guarantees greater long-term motor learning and skill acquisition.

Low-level sprint skill drills can be used in place of a generic warm-up that may otherwise include sumo squats, grass sweeps, and lunge and twists. Make warm-ups contextual and create specific themes that create positive adaptation. Every movement should have rhyme and reason and not be implemented “just because.”

Minimal Effective Dose

Minimal effective dose is all about volume. What is the smallest amount of quality work needed to drive adaptation? Dr. Mike Young advises that team sport athletes should complete 200-300 meters of total sprint volume in a dedicated sprint session.

I’m a big fan of the “less is more” approach and take it a step further by knowing I can “top up” sprint volume across multiple sessions in a week. Thus, I use a simple formula to devise my total sprint volume for my one dedicated speed session of the week. I aim for just half of Dr. Young’s suggestion and build the rest up on other days. We typically complete 120-150 meters of total maximal sprinting (excluding stride throughs) in any one given team sprint session, which takes 15-20 minutes from walking in cold to completion.

Understand the importance of a ‘less is more’ approach for developing speed in team sport athletes, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

It’s essential to understand the importance of a less-is-more approach for developing speed in team sport athletes. Total stress to the system can be immense for a field sport athlete, especially in season. Regular team trainings can include heavy contact, wrestling, high-intensity intervals, and lactate laden small-sided games. In addition, it is not uncommon to have two heavy lower-body weight sessions in a week. All these factors mean the fatigue/recovery glass can often be teetering on empty. Therefore, it’s essential we do the least we can get away with whenever we want to add any other additional training.

Furthermore, a low volume starting point has two benefits. First, it allows for greater long-term growth. If we start with a high volume of sprint training, we quickly realize the downside of the principle of diminishing returns. There are two rules true of all training.

1. Everything works, and
2. Everything will eventually stop working.

If we know that everything will eventually stop working, we should make sure to save the most advanced and hardest training for as late in the athletic development program as possible. If we start with a high volume of sprint training, we will leave ourselves no room for additional volume to be added when we reach an inevitable plateau. Start small and build up slowly.

Second, acute spikes in high-speed running are associated with increased risk of injury. Earn the right to use high volumes by building up appropriately.

Drills

A question I get asked frequently is: “Which drills are best for developing speed?” Well, first, let’s address a slightly different question. Do drills develop speed at all? My answer would have to be “no.”

Rather, based on experience I have come to the belief that drills provide a neural priming effect and context to establish positions and orient force production at lower speeds than in all-out sprinting. When sprinting at 10m/s, it can be quite difficult to execute various fundamental technical positions. Thus, the practice of sprint-specific drills can help athletes to develop an understanding of the technical elements required to sprint in the most efficient manner. Exposure to maximal sprint speed is what develops speed, but we can only optimize this and reduce the risk of injury after we establish good technique.

So, how does a coach decide which drills to use? I have the less-is-more approach. All my drills are either specific strength or hip, trunk, and foot strike orientation drills. This is the biggest thing I have seen my athletes struggle to execute and which I see as having the greatest return on time invested.

Running fast is peripheral to the overall goal of being a good player in the sport in question, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

I’m always looking to create gradually more complex “A” series progressions. I do not typically use B-skips or dribbling drills. This is because I believe we get our posterior chain development from our prime times and I find dribbling drills reinforce the short, choppy steps that are often already a technical issue for my athletes. Remember, running fast is peripheral to the overall goal of being a good player in the sport in question, so using as few drills as possible to address the basics should be paramount. That’s not to say these drills have no place, just that their place isn’t at the starting point of my program.

Therefore, I have a set of six simple main drills with appropriate progressions for each:

1. Lunge pattern
2. A-pop
3. A-skip
4. High knees
5. Prime times
6. Acceleration bounds

I do use other drills (and by no means do I claim these are the only ones that work—this is just what I’ve found to work for me) in a corrective manner with individuals who I believe could benefit from a specific drill. However, in general, these are all that I will use. I see drills 5 and 6 as “special strength” exercises aimed at developing explosive strength and I’ll use one or the other to complement the physiological response targeted through the particular training block we’re in.

Technical Model

My technical model is built around the “keep it simple, stupid”(KISS) principle. If I can create a system so simple that every athlete in my squad can know the key aspects by the end of pre-season, then I am already ahead of the ball. Remember, we’re not working with track sprinters here. An understanding of the intricate details of optimal sprint technique is very low on your athlete’s list of interests. Being able to get some key points across in as few words as possible will reduce confusion and increase buy-in from your athletes.

There are other great models out there, such as rhythm, projection, and rise or PAL, and I do use concepts from these in my own system. My model (PARF) consists of four key components: Posture, Alignment, Range of movement, and Force orientation.

1. Posture is inclusive of the following areas: In acceleration, “head to heel, strong as steel,” with aggressive shin and torso angles using gravity to help you “fall forward.” At top speed, running tall with shoulders back and down, big proud chest with head and eyes up at the target, and hips remaining high and neutral (imagine being pulled up by a rope attached to your head).
2. Next, alignment revolves around the limbs, hips, and shoulders. Arms and legs should drive directly at—not across—the target, and the hips and shoulder should remain square (brace abs to deflect a punch to keep core engaged).
3. Then we focus on range of movement, I ask athletes to aim for a parallel thigh at terminal knee drive and hands working “face cheek to butt cheek,” or “from your eyes past your hip pocket.” Arms work from the shoulders, not the elbows.
4. Finally, force orientation. Research shows that it’s not how much force you can produce, but how fast and accurately you can apply and orient it, that determines sprint performance.^8,9During acceleration, it is essential that we drive back and away to “spin the earth” or “push the ground away.”

In upright running I take a leaf out of Ken Clark’s coaching cues and ask my athletes to “cock the hammer and strike the nail” or “make the ground pop.”¹⁰A powerful and stiff foot strike from above to under the hips is essential during upright running conditions and is key to creating robust and versatile maximal velocity sprint technique.

Underpinning all programming decisions with these four principles ensures field sport athletes will get greater development and retention of maximal velocity sprint speed. The moments that matter in a match rely on game-breaking speed, and a simplified framework or training system gives all coaches and their athletes access to this attribute.

In Practice

Game-breaking speed is what wins or loses matches. All athletes have the potential to develop greater maximal outputs. Now I would like to explore more deeply and reveal the specific details of what this looks like in practice.

Game-breaking speed is what wins or loses matches, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

My solution is one dedicated 20-minute speed training block per week and at least one additional exposure to very high speed running during training. If possible, a third exposure may occur in the game itself. However, if it does not, then it falls upon the coach to utilize a “speed injection” to top up the athletes.

This process may be made far easier by using wearable technology, such as GPS, that can identify peak sprint speed—albeit with some degree of error—during a session or game. When using this type of technology, I look for peak sprint speeds to reach at least 90% of maximum; this is somewhat contradictory to the 95% rule of Francis (mentioned earlier). However, with so many other stress variables in play, along with the error associated with GPS units, it’s hard to tell what a true maximum on any given day for your particular athlete may be.

Planning Training

Initially, I always start with a four-week block of maximum-velocity focused sprint work. I use a long to short program—but short to long can work just as well—because of the typical postural nature of most sprints in field sports. Gabbett highlights that nearly 60% of rugby league sprints occur from a walking, jogging, or striding start.⁴Therefore, aggressive acceleration postures are, in fact, less common than you may think. This is why I like to teach “upright” mechanics first, before layering more explosive acceleration work on top later.

Following our maximum velocity block, the focus shifts to the technical aspects of acceleration. We never stray too far away from one end of the velocity spectrum. A vertical integration approach means we will always train both top speed and acceleration, it’s just that the focal point will shift from block to block. Remember, there are many other aspects involved in the training of field sport athletes, so keeping a consistent theme in speed training will allow for long-term steady progression in outcomes. In acceleration, we execute our drills sometimes using partnered band resistance to potentiate and reinforce positive postural lean.

Session Design

My dedicated speed sessions involve three components: warm-up, specific exercise, and sprint work.

Warm-Up

The specific technical warm-up consists of drills with gradually increasing movement velocity interspersed with short, sharp “stride throughs” that bleed technique from drills into gross motor movement patterns. These drills are typically some variation of a lunge pattern/A-march, an A-pop, an A-skip, a high knees, and a bounding drill (with the variation dependent on session goal—acceleration or maximum velocity). Each drill is usually completed for just one or two 10m repetitions followed by a 10-meter walk-in stride through at 80%, 85%, 90%, and 95% relative intensity.

To create buy-in during the sometimes monotonous “warm-up,” I create competition among my athletes. Athletes perform their drills in waves of four athletes at a time, allowing me to observe and correct technique without having too many athletes going at once. We then rank each wave of four athletes based upon the quality of their drill execution, with winners praised and losers ridiculed (in a light-hearted manner). Any time there is competition in training, athletes naturally want to perform. For those who have not previously taken our drill component seriously, I’ve found this leads to immediate changes in our session quality.

Do not sacrifice drill quality—this is where the learning occurs, so ensure it is done well, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

I’m a huge fan of breezing through the warm-up as quickly as possible. The athletes want to train, and that’s where they’ll develop the most. But do not sacrifice drill quality—this is where the learning occurs, so ensure it is done well.

Specific Exercises

Following the A series drills and bounding in our warm-up, we enter a constraints-based sprint exercise. Environmental factors are manipulated to create tasks where the only way to successfully complete the drill is by optimizing technique. If technique is faulty, the athlete fails.

The selection of this exercise is entirely dependent upon the training block and, again, KISS rules all else here. During maximum velocity blocks, the constraints-based exercise will be a wickets or mini hurdle run drill, and during acceleration a resisted or incline sprint will be used.¹¹Both these drills have endless variations, so subtle ongoing progression can occur throughout the season within the context of the specific drill itself.

For example, the wickets drill can be progressed by crossing the arms; holding a dowel on the shoulders or overhead; running with a ball in one arm, switching the ball-carrying arm mid-rep or making or receiving a pass on the fly; or by competing with a teammate or against the clock. Likewise, in acceleration, progressions could include heavy prowler pushes (Joe DeFranco style), grandstand or hill sprints, three- or four-point start sled sprints (progression in velocity from ~50% up to 90%), and band-resisted sprints, with competitive and non-competitive variations.¹¹

I have selected these two key exercises because of the way they enable the athlete to explore the perceptual motor landscape and find movement solutions without active verbal cueing from the coach. When dealing with 40 athletes, it can be a godsend to just stand back and observe rather than actively coaching every single rep. The wickets drill forces athletes to find good posture and front side mechanics all on their own. Likewise, resisted sprints are a must, not only for developing aggressive acceleration posture and horizontal force production, but also for developing highly movement-specific strength in athletes.

Sprint Work

After our drills and constraints-based exercise we enter the fun part: live sprinting. From my experience, competition is the key to getting the most out of this area of training. Whether it is competition with oneself via the stopwatch, or among peers running side by side, there must be a win or loss component to drive intensity. Typically, I utilize “heats” of three or four athletes pitted against one another.

It’s important to ensure these races are going to be as competitive as possible—for instance, in rugby do not match your prop with your fullback, or if they’re running against one another, create a handicap by giving the slower athlete up to a 10% head start so both athletes will need to run hard all the way through. I’ve found handicaps particularly useful in addressing the common phenomenon where faster athletes “turn it on” for only a fraction of the rep (enough to develop a lead) and slower ones give up quickly once left behind. This setup allows for a good mix between intensity, walk-back recovery time, and session flow.

Rumpf et al. demonstrate that for the best results, sprint training should be completed over distances greater than 30 meters.⁷This fits excellently with Dr. Young’s suggestion that team sport athletes should complete repetitions that fall between 30 and 60 meters in distance. For these reasons, I follow a linear distance regression throughout my training blocks, starting at longer distances with few repetitions and finishing with shorter distances for a greater number of reps. Total sprint volume remains consistent across all sessions. Table 1 shows an example of a four-week training block.

Table 1.An example of my four-week training block. I follow a linear distance regression throughout my training blocks, starting at longer distances with few repetitions and finishing with shorter distances for a greater number of reps. Total sprint volume remains consistent across all sessions.

Our speed work is progressed through varied starts (prone, supine, half kneeling, drop and roll, or chase). This mixes chaos into the equation to link the pure linear speed we’re aiming to develop with the realities of field sports. Curvilinear runs may be introduced later in the program to create greater specificity in our workouts. However, I never stray too far from the pure maximal outputs that can only be achieved with more focused sessions. Introducing too much chaos just serves to add more of what a field sport athlete already gets in their regular training. The only way to create real development of sprint speed is by “filling the gaps” with more pure training sessions.

Previously, I mentioned having some sneaky tricks up your sleeve to create the illusion of busyness within your speed sessions. This can be a lifesaver if, like me, you’ve worked in scenarios where coaches become skeptical of training that involves any standing around.

The trick to this is to superset or complex a series of extensive or low-level plyometrics, medicine ball throws, ball skills, or core exercise after each repetition of your sprint workout. Some simple throws against a brick wall or lateral hurdle hops can add a physiological benefit to the development of your athlete and create a better flow to the session. Consider working your plyometric exercises on the field rather than in the weight room to fill this void and build a greater holistic approach to training.

Speed Injections

In my experience, it is hard to ask for anything more than one 20-minute block of dedicated speed work per week. As physical preparation coaches, we still need to fit multi-directional work, energy system development, and strength work into our programs. Therefore, it is essential we are cognizant of all the factors that need to be addressed, particularly in season when coaches rightfully need more time to work on the technical and tactical elements of the sport. Thus, finding ways to “top up” our exposures to maximal velocity sprinting can be tricky, yet very important.

The ideal scenario is one where athletes reach top speed in regular training. Manipulating existing training drills to include some small elements whereby athletes are required to really turn it on is the gold standard of tactical periodization—where all essential elements are addressed through intelligent and integrated training design. However, if this can’t happen, it becomes imperative that we find another way to expose our athletes to top speed.

It is imperative that we find a way to expose our athletes to top speed, says @nathankiely1992. Share on X

One way of doing this is by using the same warm-up regularly and building towards one maximal effort before moving into team skills. Alternatively, Leicester City FC demonstrated during their remarkable 2016 Premier League victory season that speed top-ups could be effectively implemented at the conclusion of a training session. I have never done this, but it may be worth considering if you have no other options. If you do this, be very wary of volume and ensure athletes who really aren’t up to it after a hard training session are identified and pulled out.

What I typically do instead is ask my athletes to give me one or two maximal efforts of either 40m or a simple 10m fly at the conclusion of our multi-directional work. I do this then because I know they will be warm, but also fresh. Therefore, without consuming much time, I believe this is the best place for this work to be done.

Having various options open to you for alternative means of topping up exposure to maximal velocity sprinting is the best way to go about it. Having an agile mindset will allow you to fill the gaps in whatever manner is the most appropriate, given the sometimes unpredictable week-to-week grind that is often associated with in-season training.

A Foundation for Speed Training

There is no substitute for raw speed in field sports. Understanding how, when, and what training modalities are best used for developing this game-breaking quality is the cornerstone of overall athletic development. Establishing a clear and simple model built on strong fundamental principles removes doubt from the decision-making process for physical preparation coaches and allows for optimal outcomes over the long term. I hope the examples I’ve presented in this article give other coaches some starting points or ideas from which to build into or upon their own ideas on speed training for their athletes.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Treme, J. and Allen, S.K., 2009. “Widely received: Payoffs to player attributes in the NFL.” Economics Bulletin, 29(3), pp.1631-1643.
2. Gabbett, T.J., Jenkins, D.G. and Abernethy, B., 2011. “Relationships between physiological, anthropometric, and skill qualities and playing performance in professional rugby league players.” Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(15), pp.1655-1664.
3. Faude, O., Koch, T. and Meyer, T., 2012. “Straight sprinting is the most frequent action in goal situations in professional football.” Journal of Sports Sciences, 30(7), pp.625-631.
4. Gabbett, T.J., 2012. “Sprinting patterns of national rugby league competition.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(1), pp.121-130.
5. Colby, M.J., Dawson, B., Peeling, P., Heasman, J., Rogalski, B., Drew, M.K. and Stares, J., 2018. “Repeated exposure to established high risk workload scenarios improves non-contact injury prediction in elite Australian footballers.” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, pp.1-22.
6. Malone, S., Roe, M., Doran, D.A., Gabbett, T.J. and Collins, K., 2017. “High chronic training loads and exposure to bouts of maximal velocity running reduce injury risk in elite Gaelic football.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20(3), pp.250-254.
7. Rumpf, M.C., Lockie, R.G., Cronin, J.B. and Jalilvand, F., 2016. “Effect of different sprint training methods on sprint performance over various distances: A brief review.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(6), pp.1767-1785.
8. Morin, J.B., Edouard, P. and Samozino, P., 2011. “Technical ability of force application as a determinant factor of sprint performance.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(9), pp.1680-1688.
9. Morin, J.B., Bourdin, M., Edouard, P., Peyrot, N., Samozino, P. and Lacour, J.R., 2012. “Mechanical determinants of 100-m sprint running performance.” European Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(11), pp.3921-3930.
10. Clark, K.P., Rieger, R.H., Bruno, R.F. and Stearne, D.J., 2017. “The NFL Combine 40-yard Dash: How Important is Maximum Velocity?” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002081.
11. Petrakos, G., Morin, J.B. and Egan, B., 2016. “Resisted sled sprint training to improve sprint performance: A systematic review.” Sports Medicine, 46(3), pp.381-400.

Athletes who are bigger, stronger, and faster have been the goal of athletic development for American football players for many years. Just north of the border, Canadian football also seeks players who are bigger, stronger, and faster. Due to differences in the sport, however, Canadian football teams cannot blindly copy the training programs from some of the most popular football programs in the United States, especially at the college level.

This is the first of two articles providing insight into the off-season athletic development program of a Canadian university football team.

Key Differences in Canadian and American Football

Much like American football, Canadian football is an intermittent collision sport where players require well-developed physical qualities such as strength, power, speed, agility, and anaerobic endurance. However, there are major differences between both sports that make Canadian football a very different game.

• The size of the field is longer (150 yards) and wider (65 yards) with end zones 20 yards deep and 110 yards separating both end zones.
• Canadian football is a 3-down game while American football is 4, which puts more emphasis on the Canadian passing game.
• All offensive backfield players except the quarterback may move in any direction to confuse the defense as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap.
• One yard separates the offensive and defensive line before the snap of the ball, which provides more opportunities for coaches to implement stunts and various movements on the defensive side of the ball. This creates additional requirements for change of direction and agility.
• While special team players often run the most during NFL games, Canadian special team players are required to run even more at both the college and professional levels.

It’s also worth mentioning that, because the goal posts are placed directly above the end zones, a missed field goal may give the special teams an opportunity to take the ball and return it for a touchdown. This can’t happen in American football because the goal posts stand at the back of the end zones. Here is an example of a 129-yard missed field goal return touchdown.

Different rules and play increase the running demands of #CanadianFootball compared to the US game, says @xrperformance. Share on X

These differences in rules and play increase the running demands in Canadian football, and we need to take them into account when planning the off-season program. One research study, for example, found the total distance traveled during a game by non-linemen (WR, DB, LB) was about 4,141.3 meters.⁴ For pre-season practices, however, another study reported distances of only 2,573 ± 489 meters for these positions.² We did our own research using GPS during eight games in the 2016 season and nine games in the 2017 season and found the WR and RB covered total distances of 6,321± 917 meters and 6,155 ± 509 meters, respectively.

With a better understanding of the demands of these positions, we had to adjust our training program so we could better prepare our student-athletes to meet the game’s requirements.

Preparing During the Winter Semester: Focusing on the Weight Room

The off-season program usually starts the first week of January when the players get back on campus. At this time of the year, there are about 90-100 players on the team. The first week has very few training activities scheduled since players meet with their coaches for team meetings and attend class. For some recruits, the first week can be a little stressful as they transition from CEGEP to university. From an athletic development perspective, it’s a perfect opportunity to introduce the philosophy and goals of the training program and perform any movement screening. Training usually resumes during the second week of January.

While I was Head Strength & Conditioning coach for a Canadian university football team, we divided winter training into four 3-week cycles. The first two 3-week cycles introduced the student-athletes to the philosophy behind the athletic development program and the different exercises they would perform. We also made sure that they executed the exercises properly.

The main training themes for the winter semester, right before the training camp, were:

1. Teaching and mastering the basic movements and understanding the terminology used
2. Progressively increasing training volume in the weight room

On the track, we began by focusing on proper running mechanics and postures and working on starts and accelerations using a short-to-long approach. Training was also needed to prepare the athletes for the increased demands of the winter training camp, which usually took place only weeks later during March break.

A training week during the winter semester was divided into four weight training sessions and two running sessions on the track. Student-athletes trained in the weight room on Monday. On Tuesday, they had two training sessions, one on the track and another in the weight room. They got Wednesday off to perform technical work with their position coach or participated in active recovery (stretching, pool, stationary bike). We repeated the same pattern for Thursday and Friday, with the athletes having the option to perform the last weight training session on Friday or Saturday.

This last training session mostly focused on upper body muscle hypertrophy because college football rules involve more collisions than professional Canadian football teams; professional teams are contractually obliged to minimize the amount of contact per training week thus restricting practices to helmets only.

After the winter training camp, the team benefited from a week off before resuming the last two 3-week cycles, which would lead them to the start of winter semester exams. The training themes during this time built on the previous training phases and prepared the players for the increased sprinting and running demands associated with summer training. Despite the need to prepare for these increased demands, the volume of sprinting on the track varied little, and overall volumes were kept quite low.

One of the challenges in Canadian university football during the winter is that we never know when we’ll have access to the outdoor football field because of the snow and cold temperatures. Also, increasing the sprinting distances and volumes on the track can lead to a lot of sore ankles, sore knees, and shin splints. During the exam period, we reduced the number of training activities so they could focus on school work.

Individualization for 100+ Athletes

At this point, training was in full swing with large groups of athletes training at the same time. Athletes performed various movements found in most athletic development programs for football, namely variations of the Olympic lifts like cleans and snatches, squats, lunges, presses, pulls, and various exercises targeting the core musculature.

Even though individualizing the training program to fit the needs of each athlete is an important principle, it’s virtually impossible to individualize the training for over 100 student-athletes when they do most activities in small groups. An interesting way to program training at this point is to use general exercise categories and allow the athlete and the strength and conditioning coach to choose exercises based on the athlete’s needs. Examples include:

• Movement-based strength exercises like various progressions of the hip lock using only body weight, elastic bands, or weight plates
• Explosive lifts (classical Olympic lifts or variations like dumbbell or barbell jump shrug), jump squat, dumbbell snatches, and plyometrics
• Bilateral exercises such as squats and deadlifts and variations including the Hex bar deadlift, barbell front squats, kettlebell squats, and Romanian deadlift
• Single-leg lower body exercises like lunges, step-ups, single-leg squats, and single-leg deadlifts
• Pushing exercises, including bench press, overhead press, and push-ups
• Pulling exercises like chin-ups, inverted rows, and dumbbell rows
• Core exercises such as various planks, Pallof press variations, landmine work, and medicine ball work

We chose exercises that best fit the goals of the session based on:

• The athlete’s needs, training experience, position, and injury history
• The theme of the current session
• The requirements of that athlete’s position
• What the athlete would do on the track the following day—exercise selection would be different if the focus of the running session was going to be on acceleration or change of direction

A Few Words on Sprinting and Change of Direction

As mentioned previously, most of the training on the track during the winter semester focused on starts and accelerations. On Tuesday, we focused on linear starts and acceleration work. On Friday, the focus was on starts and acceleration again but from a multidirectional perspective. Rarely would we run sprints above 20 or 30 meters because of the indoor track.

Here is an example of a training session focused on linear acceleration during the 3-week cycle preceding winter training camp.

• Exercise 1. Technique/Arm action—Big to small arm swings x 1-2 sets
• Exercise 2. Technique/Posture—Marching A’s 1 x 2-4 x 10 meters
• Exercise 3. Technique/Posture—Skipping A’s 1 x 4 x 20 meters
• Exercise Technique/Posture—High knees 1 x 4 x 20 meters
• Exercise 5. Acceleration 0-10 meters—Push-up starts 1 x 4 x 10 meters
• Exercise 6. Acceleration 0-10 meters—Half-kneeling starts 1 x 4 x 10 meters
• Exercise 7. Acceleration 0-20 meters—3-point starts 1 x 3 x 20 meters

When we felt the need to break the routine and provide a bit of novelty to the training, we booked the dancing studio where we could roll out the gymnastic mats. During those sessions, we performed various movements such as stick mobility exercises, a modified version of Josh Hingst’s barefoot jump rope routine, various plyometrics, and tumbling movements. We finished the training session with a “Competitive Coordination Game” à la Bill Knowles. We had these training sessions about once a month during the winter semester.

Conclusion

This article provides a glimpse of a Canadian university football team’s off-season training program. There are major differences between Canadian and American college football programs that we need to address when examining a Canadian team’s training program. We also have to design a program around the different activities that make up the life of a student-athlete including the specific demands of the sport, human and financial resources, academic environment, and weather.

In Part 2, we’ll look at the summer training we performed to better prepare the athletes for the increased running and conditioning demands of Canadian football.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Camiré, M., & Trudel, P. (2013). Using High School Football to promote Life Skills and Student Engagement: Perspectives from Canadian Coaches and Students. World Journal of Education, 3(3), 40‑ http://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v3n3p40.
2. DeMartini, J., Martschinske, J., Casa, D., Lopez, R., Ganio, M., Walz, S., & Coris, E. (2011). Physical demands of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players during preseason training in the heat. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,25(11), 2935‑doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318231a643.
3. Réseau du sport étudiant du Québec (2014). Rapport annuel 2013-2014. Consulté à l’adresse http://rseq.ca/lerseq/rseqrapportsannuels/.
4. Wellman, A. D., Coad, S. C., Goulet, G. C., & McLellan, C. P. (2016). Quantification of Competitive Game Demands of NCAA Division I College Football Players Using Global Positioning Systems. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(1), 11-19. http://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001206.

If there was ever a failure to communicate between a sub-discipline and a sport, it would be strength and conditioning and golf. When athletes in top-flight sports reveal their supplementary work, we often see explosions in fad diets, gadgets, training methods, and workouts—such is the desire to emulate and imitate other players. No other sport’s athletes receive criticism and hostility for expressing involvement in supplementary gym work like the golfer does, and it’s usually from other golfers or pundits.

Some Impressive Performance Changes in Professional Golf

I’ve worked predominantly with collision athletes in the past; collision athletes “get” strength and conditioning. Its utility is apparent as soon as you lay hands on an opponent. To them it seems self-evident.

I’ve had conversations with athletes involved in other sports who are bemused when the subject turns to my work in golf; the idea of the hyper-fragile golfers throwing around iron is apparently a novel one. This trend persists even now, and it is spectacularly misinformed. Due to the physical culture surrounding golf being a traditionally sedate one, it’s seen as an activity for retirees and business executives.

This is not to say strength and conditioning isn’t over-emphasized in other sports; physicality, while important, is obviously not the be-all and end-all. But there is little risk in golf of a S&C takeover—such is the nature of technical primacy. This technical primacy, this “otherness” in golf, means that strength and conditioning orthodoxy is overlooked for more novel “golfish” approaches.

Much is sold on the back of this to well-meaning coaches and athletes looking for any edge. The onus may lay with golf coaches unwilling to explore territory unfamiliar to them. To quote Jordan Peterson, “…the thing you most need is always to be found where you least want to look.”

The demand for increased physicality in #golf is becoming increasingly evident, says @WSWayland. Share on X

We see the writing on the wall when we note that the master’s course distance was 7,435 yards in 2016 versus 6,985 yards in 2000: As a result of (and excuse the cliche) “Tiger-proofing,” golfers now have to hit farther with more regularity. The golf press is full of complaints about how long golf courses are now. In 1980, Dan Pohl had the tour driving average at 274 yards; in 2016, Dustin Johnson had it at 313 yards. Pohl’s career was later ravaged by back problems. The demand for increased physicality in golf is becoming increasingly evident.

My colleagues at the European Tour Performance Institute are doing excellent work trying to meet this demand with both information and intervention at an elite level. There are also those working at a grassroots level to inform coaches, athletes, and parents. These tips are not exhaustive but cover some of the main concerns I’ve heard from touring professionals and coaches.

Strength and Conditioning and the Golf Athlete

The point of strength training is not just to hit the ball further.

You need to get stronger! Strength is the basis for preliminary athletic improvement for all sports, even golf. Strength is a raw material and its use is manifest in many forms of force expression further along the velocity curve. Being stronger has a correlation to club head speed (CHS) and yardage. At a minimum, a strength program is a long-term robustness strategy.

Strength is the basis for preliminary athletic improvement for all sports—even golf, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Being stronger allows you to decelerate and accelerate effectively; this equals efficiency, which means more effortless golf. Once you are strong, you can employ specific and advanced training methods to improve performance: Fundamentals before abstraction.

Eighty percent of golf injuries are overuse-related. With this in mind, many golfers’ first port of call in supplementary training is a well-meaning physiotherapist who will often deal with the issue at hand, but not steel the athlete against its reoccurrence. Physiotherapy’s dominance in the sport can be witnessed when a golfer’s go-to piece of equipment after their clubs is their foam roller.

This has come from what I see as a twofold issue: a culture of golfers leaning on a physiotherapist to inform their performance-related training and golfers’ flawed perceptions of strength and conditioning orthodoxy. This is because many athletes only take supplementary work on board once they have been injured, and not before. But many therapists are now exploring strength and conditioning as an avenue for injury reduction, especially when evidence dictates that these overuse injuries can be reduced by half with strength training.

Speaking in the broadest sense, strength and conditioning and physiotherapy have similar concerns but different focuses.

The strength coach’s priorities, in order, are:

• Improved ability to reduce and produce force that improves play
• Increased ability to express explosive power
• Increased joint stability
• Significant contribution to injury prevention and rehabilitation

The physiotherapist’s priorities, in order, are:

• Injury diagnosis, prevention, and rehabilitation
• Increased joint stability
• Improved ability to reduce and produce force in a manner that allows play

This is the reason that much of what is presented as golf strength and conditioning has a very therapy-focused bent. Tools such as Swiss balls and Bosu balls are ostensibly used as rehab tools, but divorced from their original rehabilitative intent. They are pushed onto the golf populace as performance tools despite present research suggesting that they just don’t work.

I always take it as a good sign if a physiotherapist values the #barbell as part of their practice, says @WSWayland. Share on X

This excellent post on instability training by Bob Alejo discusses why in more detail. So please, no swinging a golf club on a Bosu ball. To quote Coach Alejo: “Coaches [are] implementing unstable strategies with higher-level athletes, expecting outcomes that just won’t happen.” I always take it as good sign if a physio values the barbell as part of their approach to their practice.

Less In-Gym Rotation, More Bracing

Following on the above point, golf strength and conditioning greatly overemphasizes core training and we should question its efficacy, especially in well-trained individuals. Rotation training dominates golf S&C: If someone spends thousands and thousands of reps rotating through one movement, is the best thing doing more rotation? Recall that 80% of injuries are from overuse and the most commonly injured area is the lower back.

Golf is conceptually like track and field throwing events, baseball, and martial arts—the body uses a sling effect to project force into an implement or a fist. However, the purpose of S&C is general strength applications before specific ones; being stronger will allow for even greater rate of force development later on. Learning to squat will probably do you more good than more cable chops. This is the same mistake MMA fighters make; trying to emulate on-field movements in the gym never ends well. It’s all one-leg balance, pelvic tilt, and rotating cable exercises… oh-so-many rotating cable exercises.

So, what alternatives do we have? Much has been done with anti-rotation, anti-extension training, with sports such as baseball leading the way.

Overhead Throwing

Video 1. The ability to perform an overhead throw while rotating is crucial to link force transfer from the floor to an implement held in the hands. Athletes can do this kneeling or standing.

Stoping the rib cage from flipping open like a trash can lid is an underrated ability of the core. Also, the movement is keenly felt when someone throws a soccer ball overhead for the first time in years, especially if they have an Instagram-worthy hip tilt. The ability to do this while rotating is crucial to link force transfer from the floor to an implement held in the hands. Athletes can do this while kneeling or standing.

Anti-Rotation Chops

Video 2. The anti-rotation chops exercise is one of the best orienting movements for how anti-rotation is supposed to “feel.” The wide stance increasingly limits contribution from the legs.

I first “stole” anti-rotation chops off Eric Cressey years ago, when delving into the world of anti-rotation exercises. I still find it one of the best orienting exercises for how anti-rotation is supposed to “feel.” The wide stance increasingly limits contribution from the legs.

Farmer’s Walks

Video 3. The Farmer’s Walk is useful for athletes who carry clubs and walk a lot as part of their sport. I employ offset and single arm to encourage lateral stability.

The Farmer’s Walk is a classic that is, thankfully, a weight room stalwart these days. I employ offset and single arm largely to encourage lateral stability. It’s useful for athletes that carry clubs and walk a lot as part of their sport.

Pallof Pressing

Video 4. Pallof presses are a classic anti-rotation exercise that also involve the hip and shoulder positions.

Pallof presses are the classic standing anti-rotation exercise we are all familiar with. They are not only anti-rotation, but both the hip and shoulder positions are thrown into the challenge as well.

Lifting Heavy, Specificity, and the Golfer

I usually suggest one to three reps, and probably no more than five, with varying loads depending on whether you want to achieve maximum velocity, power, or strength. Why? The golf swing is a very short duration, high-power, explosive activity clocking in at around 7,500N in a full swing. (Keep in mind this force measurement is from a 1990 study, so it may be higher still.)

In the gym, training occurs at much lower velocities than it does during an actual sport. The average punch is around 10 m/s (a movement I understand well), whereas the average dynamic effort bench press may only reach 0.8-1 m/s. A golf swing (a movement I’m working to understand better) of a club travelling at 100 mph will be 44 m/s. The theory of dynamic correspondence suggests that as we approach a competition, velocity must increase to make the nervous system more specific in the way it produces force. Strength work for golf has often put the figurative cart before the horse.

As strength coaches, we know the attainment of general physical qualities can enhance sport performance in some individuals—particularly beginners—but training modalities focused on more specific exercises may in fact be needed for the continuing improvement of optimal transfer to more advanced athletes. This is where the athlete or coach using high-velocity peaking can be particularly useful, turning gym time into real-world performance statements. I am not a golf coach: My athletes don’t come into the gym to practice golf—they come to build physical capacities that transfer well to golf.

The In-Season Dilemma and Manipulating the Residual

Golfers have varying times between golf competitions, plus travel time, which makes training with regularity difficult but, if planned properly, very possible. I encourage golfers to have some sort of off-season, especially as juniors, so that they can work on gross strength qualities during the winter months. This works well with developing players. It means that as they grow up, they will have a good strength base and can make the most of training residuals to plan training around travel schedules.

Golfers need an off-season so they can work on gross strength qualities during the winter months, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Training residuals are the amounts of time it takes to see qualities start to diminish from an established set point. The residuals vary, but give us a rough idea of how long athletes might have to work on certain qualities. I have known athletes to take very long breaks and see only small decrements and others take short breaks and see big regressions. What is important is that once a quality is trained, it is easily regained. Stronger athletes have to do less to keep their strength levels at an acceptable standard in season than athletes who might be trying to retroactively attain strength during the season.

Travel itself can add a lot of stress to the athlete: dehydration; nutrition challenges, especially when visiting more exotic locations; changes in time zones; and disrupted sleep due to these changes. This can lead to lethargic athletes who have little desire to visit a weight room or hotel gym. Players often travel on a Sunday/Monday to try and settle into some semblance of normality before starting practice sessions or a tournament.

After a long flight to an event, I often suggest that an athlete head to the hotel gym and have a simple wake-up workout or “move around.” To counter the detrimental effects of travel, we need more than a few minutes on a foam roller. There is no reason such work can’t be performed outside or in a hotel room, if needed.

A playing week will usually start on a Thursday and end on a Sunday, if the athlete makes all subsequent cuts. Generally, I suggest an athlete lifts on a Monday or Tuesday. Golf athletes need to learn that lifting in and around tournaments, when habitual, will only enhance performance in the long run. Athletes who avoid lifting will be rewarded with fragility.

A cut in the field will occur generally after Day 2. Missed cuts are not an opportunity to lick wounds; instead, use the time to prepare physically and get in a heavy session in order to keep related physical qualities in good order before the next tournament.

Hotel Gym Navigation

The hotel/golf club gym represents a challenge in and of itself. Those of you who have experienced the delights of such training venues will be familiar with the usual half-baked investment most hoteliers make in their gym facilities. Rather than write it off because it lacks any one piece of equipment or doesn’t have a rack, I encourage athletes to be pragmatic and creative when it comes to Plan B or Plan C workouts.

For instance, here’s a simple hotel gym workout. I encourage athletes to take bands, suspension straps, and a skipping rope with them, as these take up very little luggage space.

Warm-up: Prehab, mobilize, foam roll, etc.
A) Skipping: 3 x 1:00
B) Goblet squats or DB front squats: 3 x 10-12
C1) Press-up or suspension press-up: 3 x 6 4-sec eccentrics
C2) Pull-up or ring row:3 x 8-12 4-sec eccentrics     
D) DB goat belly swing: 3 x 15 paired with :30 side planks

While social media keeps me contactable, I consider 10:00 p.m. calls from co-dependent athletes unsure how to get on with a 20kg dumbbell set and no squat rack somewhat infantile. The key is for the athlete to keep the intent the same despite a change of exercise selection. You can achieve a lot with supplementary bodyweight training, an understanding of tempo training, bands brought in a suitcase, and knowing your way around a dumbbell rack.

I often encourage athletes to scout the surrounding area for suitable gyms as strength and conditioning gyms are easier to find now than ever and CrossFit boxes are common the world over. These places usually welcome a traveling athlete, often charging a nominal drop-in fee or even no fee in exchange for some social media promotion.

Get Bigger!

A continual concern I hear from both coaches and athletes is the notion of the “muscle bound” or “stiff” athlete. I tell them that “golfers shouldn’t do bicep curls as it will shorten their swing.” The nuanced nature of the golf swing means that specific notions of “feel” trump everything else, movement variability is derided, and anything affecting that delicate equilibrium is often discouraged.

Additional stress like lifting will obviously impact “feel,” at least initially, and this is enough to distress some coaches and athletes. Hence, the gravitation towards fluff and “golfish” gym movements that don’t offer much in the way of stress or real change. Once an athlete is lifting habitually, this concern is quickly overcome; however, just getting them to this point in the first place can be tricky.

Presently, the biggest swingers are in the sub-discipline of long-drive competitions, with club head speeds at around 150mph—25-40mph faster than their PGA counterparts—and ball speeds of nearly double the average golfer. Mass has a strong association with increased club head speed, so it’s no surprise that the average long-drive field is filled with bigger men and women, despite no formal analysis.

Golfers have little to fear from adding mass: It helps them get more distance and adds robustness, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Coming back to professional golf, a lesson from this is that there is little to fear from adding mass. It’s probably one of the best weapons I’ve used in helping undersized athletes turning pro to get more distance to match their taller compatriots. It also adds a robustness factor, as mass can be protective and confidence-building. I’m not suggesting that anyone undertake German volume training or anything extreme, but increased calories, appropriate rep prescription, and the use of tempo-based lifting for a quiet period on a tour schedule can help add much-needed size.

Moving Forward with a Golf Strength and Conditioning Culture

Golf has a disparate strength and conditioning culture, which varies based on the national governing body amateur program, coach predilection, and conjecture, hearsay, and misconception. Many of the young golfers I meet who have studied and been part of American university golf programs or come through countries that have comprehensive NGB input usually have a handle on appropriate strength and conditioning. On the other hand, many golf coaches, even at high levels, still hold perplexing ideas on the subject. This article reflects the topics I’m asked about most often; I hope we can make the coming culture shift in golf S&C smoother.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Gosheger, G., Liem, D., Ludwig, K., Greshake, O. & Winkelmann, W. “Injuries and overuse syndromes in golf.” American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2003. 31(3): 438-443.

Lauersen, J.B., Bertelsen, D.M. & Andersen, L.M. “The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.” British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2013.

Prieske, O., Muehlbauer, T. & Granacher, U. “The Role of Trunk Muscle Strength for Physical Fitness and Athletic Performance in Trained Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Sports Medicine. 2016. 46(3): 401-419.

Push-ups are one of the most commonly used exercises among fitness buffs and elite-level athletes. As a closed-chained exercise that targets the chest and upper body musculature, push-ups are highly effective for improving upper body pushing strength and endurance, and can be done with no equipment. There are plenty of regressions, progressions, and variations to pick from, making push-ups useful for athletes of all types. From bodyweight push-ups to loaded isometric push-ups, there are also various ways to load and challenge the movement.

Because push-ups can be regressed, progressed, and varied, they are useful for all types of athlete. Share on X

This article will specifically go over several plyometric push-up exercises, their progressions, and ways to utilize them to improve upper body plyometric ability and power development.

Plyometrics for Upper Body Power

There is no doubt that strength and power are cornerstones of physical development when it comes to developing elite athletes such as martial artists, football players, and rugby players. Being able to produce large amounts of force, and produce it quickly, is crucial for advancing a position, warding off a defender, or landing a knockout punch.

One of the most effective ways to improve power is through the use of plyometrics. Plyometric training involves a movement that has a quick turnaround between the eccentric and concentric phases of a muscle action. An athlete that can reduce the time of the turnaround (called the amortization phase) has a greater ability to use the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) of their muscles and tendons, resulting in faster, more explosive movement.

When the topic of plyometric training comes up, many people immediately think of depth jumps, bounding, and lower body training. Utilizing plyometrics for upper body training is just as effective and must not be forgotten. My goal in this article is to offer some creative push-up variations and methods to improve upper body power.

Push-Up Basics

Before I dive into plyometric push-up variations, let me reiterate some push-up basics for a safe and efficient press. Here are some pointers and principles to perform the push-up with great technique, regardless of the variation.

• Your body forms a straight line from head to toe. Tuck in your rib cage and engage your core to keep a neutral back and the whole body moving as one unit.
• Head/neck position should be neutral to promote a long and tall back.
• Hand placement and width should be comfortably outside shoulder’s width, but can be altered to emphasize different muscles and pushing patterns (wide grip—more chest contribution, close grip—more tricep contribution).
• The push-up is a closed-chain movement, meaning the hands are stationary, while the shoulder joint and shoulder blades can move freely.

Assisted/Accelerated Plyometrics

Accelerated plyometrics, sometimes called overspeed training, is one of many ways to add variation into your plyometric training. Accelerated plyometrics operate on the opposite principle of weighted plyometrics: weighted/loaded plyometrics consist of exercises like depth jumps with a weighted vest to further increase the difficulty and intensity of the exercise, whereas accelerated plyometrics commonly use a band to unload a percentage of an athlete’s body weight. This makes plyometric exercises more feasible for heavier athletes or athletes with lower max-strength, while still allowing them to produce force in an explosive manner.

Unloaded plyometric training has several benefits:

1. It acts as a regression, allowing heavier or weaker athletes to perform the same plyometric exercise with technical proficiency.
2. It allows some plyometric exercises to be done extensively, meaning athletes can perform them for a longer duration or for a higher amount of repetitions.
3. Extensive plyometrics can be beneficial for building the skill of plyometric muscle action and developing rhythm and fluidity, as well as for tendon health.
4. Unloading a percentage of bodyweight means less weight to move, allowing for a quicker amortization phase/SSC.

Band-Assisted Plyometric Push-Up Variations

The video below shows three different band-assisted plyometric push-up variations, each with its own application.

1. Low Height – Quarter Extensions are small plyometric hops used to build and improve rhythm, an important principle for repeated plyometric training. This is particularly great as a warm-up for more powerful movements later.
2. Medium Height–Full Extensions are used to further improve the timing of the landing and transition phase.
3. Full Height – Full Extensions are the main variation used to improve power development. Push with full intent on each rep while keeping the core engaged. Try to minimize the time spent touching the bench and stay explosive. The bench is lava!!

Video 1. This video shows three different band-assisted plyometric push-up variations, each with its own application.

You’ll notice I perform these banded push-ups elevated, on a bench. This makes the exercise easier to perform. To increase the difficulty, you can do these on the floor and use a thinner band. The band I’m using provides about 25-40lbs of tension when I anchor it up 5.5-6 feet off the ground (attached to a barbell in the video).

Advanced Variation: Depth Drop Plyometric Push-Ups

For more advanced athletes who want to further challenge and develop their plyometric ability, here’s a plyometric push-up variation that accentuates the SSC. To perform this exercise, start in your regular push-up position, making sure to engage the core and maintain tension throughout the entire body. Quickly lift your hands, allowing your body to drop towards the bench/ground, catching yourself and performing an explosive push-up. You can draw some similarities between this exercise and the commonly used depth jump off a box.

Video 2. The depth drop plyometric push-up accentuates the stretch-shortening cycle. More advanced athletes looking to further challenge and develop their plyometric ability should try this, using open hands or closed fists, depending on shoulder girdle stability.

This exercise gives athletes a shorter window of opportunity to catch themselves on the eccentric and redirect that force. The objective here again is to minimize the amortization phase for better plyometric development.

Push-ups performed with a closed first are beneficial for wrist resilience and forearm development. Share on X

In the second part of the video, you can see that I perform these depth drop plyometric push-ups with closed fists—this is optional. As a martial artist myself, and a coach who trains martial artists, I’ve found push-ups performed with a closed fist beneficial for wrist resilience, forearm development, and transference to punching specific plyometric ability. Depending on the athlete, using a closed fist may or may not affect the stability of the shoulder girdle when performing these exercises, so I’ll leave that for you to experiment with.

Reactive Plyometric Push-Up

For the last variation, a reactive component is added to the plyometric push-ups. The reactive component can be any external auditory or visual stimulus that requires the athlete to alter their push-up direction, depth, or grip width in a timely fashion.

Video 3. The reactive plyometric push-up has a reactive component that requires the athlete to alter their push-up direction, depth, or grip width. This adds higher cognitive effort and time-stress into the exercise, which may hone fast decision-making skills that transfer to sport performance.

Adding a reactive component to plyometrics incorporates higher cognitive effort and time-stress into the exercise, which may be beneficial for fast decision-making skills that will transfer to sport performance. As for many, if not all, reactive drills, this is best done with a partner or coach. In the video above, I’m changing my push-up grip width in response to my training partner’s visual cues. You can also use bands here for assistance.

Programming and Application

Learning the different variations of push-ups and how to biomechanically perform them with proficiency is only the first step. In order to fully reap the benefits, a coach must know where these exercises fit in a periodized plan and how to apply them in the daily high performance setting. This section will outline the variables that can be manipulated in order to drive the adaptations we want to see in our athletes.

Movement Pattern

At its core, the plyometric push-up is a full-body horizontal pressing movement, performed in an explosive manner. Plyometric push-ups can therefore replace or be used in conjunction with other horizontal plyometric push exercises like medicine ball chest tosses while standing, if the goal is to improve the SSC of the upper body and upper body pressing/pushing power.

Periodization

Within Training Session

Since the plyometric push-up is performed at a relatively high velocity compared to strength-based compound movements, the plyometric push-up should be placed high up in the exercise order of any training session. The general guideline for power- and plyometric-based exercises is that they should be done in a fresh, non-fatigued state so that the athlete can focus on absorbing and producing the most force possible, as quickly as possible. The power output and velocities achieved with power and plyometric exercises will be compromised if athletes perform them after strength-based compound lifts and auxiliary exercises. The exception for this is using plyometric exercises in conjunction with post activation potentiation. More on this later.

Within the Meso and Macrocycles

It’s hard to offer concrete guidelines on how to program these in the mesocycle/macrocycle level without knowledge of the athlete and the nature of the sport. Generally speaking, I’m a proponent of performing exercises extensively before moving on to more intensive programming. For team sports and mixed athletes that require a high amount of power output, this means gradually increasing intensity of the plyometric push-ups (and decreasing volume) as the competition season nears, or keeping intensity high during the in-season to maintain power output qualities.

Programming and Prescription

Extensive plyometrics and intensive plyometrics have slightly different objectives; therefore, they should be programmed and prescribed differently.

Extensive Plyometrics

• Multiple sets of high(er) repetition (10-30 reps+).
• Used to build rhythm, develop timing, increase technical proficiency.
• Can be used as a conditioning tool since the goal is not maximal power output.
• Can be used in conjunction with/be prescribed using work-to-rest ratios.

Keep in mind the goal of using plyometrics extensively is to build rhythm and fluidity, and create muscle-tendon adaptations that will lead to better performance when it comes time to perform max effort, intensive power, and plyometric exercises. We are not looking for maximum power output or the shortest contact times.

Intensive Plyometrics

• Multiple sets of low(er) repetitions (3-10 reps).
• Can be used in conjunction with velocity-based training (VBT).
• Establish a velocity cut-off for the concentric phase; keep on performing repetitions with maximal effort until the cut-off is met or is no longer in the desired range.
• Establish a power output cut-off; keep on performing repetitions with maximal effort until power decreases significantly or is no longer in the desired range.
• Establish a contact time cut off for the amortization phase; keep on performing repetitions with intent to minimize contact time on the floor/bench.
• Quality over quantity!!!

Post Activation Potentiation, Complex Sets, and the French Contrast Method

Plyometrics, along with other power and ballistic exercises, can be paired with potentiation loading methods (post activation potential or PAP) such as complex sets and French Contrast Method (FCM) to further increase the rate of power development.

Pair plyometrics with potentiation loading methods to further increase rate of power development. Share on X

PAP is a phenomenon where neuromuscular contraction is acutely increased after performing a bout of heavy compound movements. In practice, the heavy compound movement, commonly called the “potentiating exercise,” is paired with a lower load power/plyometric/ballistic exercise in order to acutely improve power production.

Complex Sets/Contrast Training

The general guidelines for the “potentiating exercise” are as follows: They should be performed with near maximal effort (85-100% of 1RM) and should resemble some of the traits seen in the power movement being potentiated. Whether this is the same movement pattern or similar joint angles, the more biomechanically similar the two movements, the better the potentiating effect.

Following these guidelines, the best exercises to potentiate higher power outputs in the plyometric push-ups should possess some of these characteristics:

• A horizontal pushing/pressing pattern.
• Involve the chest, front delts, and triceps as the primary movers.
• Performed with near maximal effort, 85-100% of 1RM, for a 1-5 rep max, or at least done until a RIR of 1 (reps in reserve)/RPE of 8 or 9.
• Can be an open-chained or close-chained exercise (more examples later).
• Supramaximal loading such as eccentric-only exercises with 100%+ of 1RM can also be experimented with.
• Rest times depend on the intensity and volume of both exercises, as well as the training mesocycle. Improvements can be seen from a wide range of 3-12 minutes of rest in between exercise. More here: Science For Sport and NSCA Guidelines

Example #1:
Potentiating Exercise: Barbell Floor Press – 3 reps @ 90% of 1RM
Potentiated Exercise: Banded Plyometric Drop Push-Up on Bench Press – for Reps or Based on Velocity/Contact Time

Example #2:
Potentiating Exercise: Weighted Push-Up – 5 reps @ 85% of 1RM
Potentiated Exercise: Banded Reactive Push-Ups – for Reps or Based on Velocity/Contact Time

Example #3:
Potentiating Exercise: Jammer Press – 5 Reps @ 85% of 1RM
Potentiated Exercise: Banded Plyometric Push-Up on Bench Press – for Reps or Based on Velocity/Contact Time

Example #4
Potentiating Exercise: Supramaximal Weighted Dips – 3 reps @ 105% of 1RM (3-4 second Eccentrics ONLY)
Potentiated Exercise: Banded Plyometric Close Grip Push-Up – for Reps or Based on Velocity/Contact Time

French Contrast Method

The French Contrast Method is the bigger brother of complex sets, consisting of a larger variation of exercises, performed in a circuit to drive power and power-endurance power adaptations. The FCM is similar to complex/contrast training in the sense that it uses a heavy compound exercise to potentiate the nervous system and acutely increase motor unit recruitment. However, because the FCM consists of more exercises, some of which may require a high degree of technical proficiency, FCM should be reserved for advanced athletes.

Beginners and intermediates can improve strength and power simply by developing proper foundational biomechanics of movement and strategic exercise selection, whereas advanced athletes might need a little bump to reach the next level. The FCM is considered that little bump in the realm of power training.

The FCM template is as follows:

1. A maximal strength movement (heavy compound exercise using 85-100% of 1RM, eccentric-only exercises can be viable as well).
2. A force-focused plyometric exercise (can be bodyweight, or loaded).
3. A speed-strength movement (anywhere from 30-60% of 1RM, with intentions to move it fast).
4. A speed-focused plyometric exercise (usually assisted).

As you can see, the FCM consists of four exercises done in a circuit fashion. Rest should be minimal in between exercises (~15-20 seconds, just enough for you to get to the other exercise), and longer in between sets (no less than three minutes, five minutes and up is preferred). 

Example of the FCM applied to horizontal pushing power development:

#1 Max Strength Exercise: Barbell Bench Press – 3 Reps @ 90% of 1RM

#2 Force Plyometric Exercise: Bodyweight Reactive Plyometric Push-Ups – for Reps or Based on Force Drop-Off

#3 Speed-Strength Movement: Jammer Press – Perform Reps @ 40% of 1RM

#4 Speed Plyometric Exercise: Band-Assisted Plyometric Push-Ups – for Reps or Based on Velocity/Contact Time

More combinations of exercises can be built using the template provided above. The FCM is a method usually reserved for the peaking phases of an athlete’s competition schedule, and not to be done weekly, year-round.

The Biggest Takeaways

Extensive and intensive plyometrics, contrast sets, and the FCM: These methods can be overwhelming all together, but no coach is expected to apply all of these in their training, especially all at the same time. This article was written simply to dive into the possible training methods that coaches can use.

Coaches shouldn’t apply all loading methods in their training—assess what each athlete needs. Share on X

If an athlete has trouble with their push-up biomechanics, more advanced loading methods like the FCM are out of the question. Assess the current level of the athlete(s) you’re working with, where they are currently in their competition season or athletic career, and prescribe these methods accordingly. That should be the biggest takeaway from this article.

And there you have it—a guide on how I implement push-ups for power development, using various pieces of equipment around the gym, as well as several loading methods suitable for athletes of all types.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Virtually everyone knows the importance of leg strength in pitchers. Training the lower half of the body usually focuses on the big movements like squats and deadlifts. They dominate the landscape for most athletes, and rightly so. When you look at a pitching motion, the majority of the actual motion from leg pickup to release is performed through an interplay of single leg motion. That interplay could fill a novel, but the main concept is that each leg individually plays an important role in pitching.

Before our athletes ever do a #deadlift, we teach and train the weighted barbell reverse lunge, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

Building lower half strength with our younger athletes may deviate from the common thought. The reverse lunge is a staple in our program for incoming collegiate pitchers. Before our athletes ever dive into a deadlift, we teach and train the weighted barbell reverse lunge. Not only is it beneficial for creating strength in a split stance, but anecdotal and empirical research suggests it has a correlation to performance as well as injury prevention. For us, getting strong in a single leg movement outweighs the use of multiple double leg movements throughout a weekly mesocycle.

Performance and Lunge Strength Transfer

The first place to start with the lunge and its relationship to performance is to simply create more leg strength and motor control in the lower half. It has been well documented that leg strength can play a crucial factor in pitching velocity. The true transfer of a lunge movement to pitching is based upon several factors, with training age and the current level of the athlete potentially the most important. The lower the level of the athlete, the more transfer the lunge will have. As an athlete’s ability increases to a high or an elite level, you will find less transfer. Regardless, the lunge can be very beneficial along the path of development for many athletes.

A study by Matsuo in 2001 documented four common patterns (A, B, C, D) in pitchers’ landing legs. Categorizing pitchers by either high velocity or low velocity, Matsuo found that the amount of flexion and/or extension of the front knee varied by how hard each group threw. He classified A and B patterns as more knee extension dominant, and C and D patterns as more flexion dominant.

Groups A and B landed flexed, but drove the knee back hard into extension at ball release. The C and D patterns essentially stayed flexed on the knee through ball release. The results showed that 83% of the high-velocity group displayed a front leg moving from flexion into extension over the course of front foot contact to ball release.

Another study done in 2015 by McNally showed that stride leg ground reaction forces were strongly correlated with ball velocity as well. While the study was done with 18 former competitive baseball players, the ability to decelerate on the front leg and apply force opposite the direction of the throw was significant.

Both studies illustrate the importance of the front leg and the ability to brace and apply force. Again, the athlete’s level matters here in terms of specificity, but building a large base of strength can clearly assist athletes.

Addressing Weaknesses

A new athlete entering a program cannot hide their weaknesses. One of the most common weaknesses that I find in incoming athletes is single leg strength. Many have rarely done anything in the realm of a single leg movement. If they have, it has often been solely with high-rep bodyweight lunges.

One of the most common weaknesses that I find in incoming athletes is single leg strength, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

There are many reasons that single leg work may be a weakness. One reason may simply be the time availability at the high school level. Many programs have limited time, and therefore coaches may choose to focus on large movements that athletes can do quickly. Single leg work may get lost in that mix or may not rank high enough on the scale of importance for the time available.

Athletes that do train in high school are often thrown into a one-size-fits-all basic program. Even if time is not an issue, programs are commonly built around the big basics such as squat and/or deadlift. Numbers are often important to coaches, and the reverse lunge isn’t a numbers lift. Therefore, it often gets looked over in the grand scheme of programming. Single leg movements aren’t sexy and don’t get the social media views that a big-time squat or deadlift does.

The Lumbar Spine

The prioritization of single leg movements over bilateral through our developmental phase is due to the large rise in back issues with incoming athletes. Pars fractures, and even disc injuries, dominate the landscape of high school/junior college baseball due to the high volume of skill work and low or nonexistent volume of training. Deficiencies in core strength and/or pelvic control, hip mobility issues, faulty movement patterns, and even the mechanics of how an athlete rotates all factor into the equation for a lumbar stress fracture.

Due to increased back issues w/ incoming athletes, we prioritize single leg movements over bilateral, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

The same muscles responsible for transferring rotational force through the body are also responsible for the deceleration of those same movements to protect the spine from injury. The spine undergoes large extension and rotation forces in any rotational movement. Athletes who cannot control end ranges of motion will end up ramming bony anatomy together while decelerating rotational movements. The result are stress fractures in the lumbar spine.

The first step is to eliminate movements that put large forces through the lumbar spine in the form of extension-based patterns. Squats, deadlifts, and RDLs are usually no-no’s for rehabilitating stress fractures. These bilateral movements often put athletes through large ranges of flexion and extension, and put huge forces through the vertebrae, causing once-dormant problems to again rear their head. Stress fractures that are asymptomatic will often stay hidden until they aren’t. If you want to find one, start putting athletes who are largely extended under load and see what happens.

Injury Prevention Benefits

The role of the kinetic chain in any rotational movement, especially that of pitching, cannot be overlooked. The legs, pelvis, and core all play fundamentally important roles in the buildup and transmission of energy. Weaknesses and/or breakdowns in the chain of a throwing athlete can transfer stress distally to the shoulder and elbow.

A 2013 study done by the Ben Hogan Sports Medicine clinic back found interesting results with UCL injuries and single leg testing. It looked at 60 baseball athletes, 30 healthy and 30 recently diagnosed with UCL tears. Players with UCL tears scored significantly lower on the Y Balance Test for both stance (P<.001) and lead (P<.001) lower extremities, compared to the non-injured athletes.

The Y Balance Test requires motor control of the lower half, transfer of body weight to each leg, core control, balance, and mobility to complete. The finished test looks for asymmetries. A deficiency in any of the above, or huge imbalances, could be a red flag for pitchers.

While you should view every study with a bit of skepticism, the findings of this data suggest there could be a potential association between impaired single leg ability and UCL tears in high school and collegiate baseball players.

Josh Heenan, strength coach, and president of Advanced Therapy and Performance in Omaha, Nebraska, has found similar results with the weighted reverse lunge. Based on data from more than 1,400 athletes, he and his colleagues view the reverse lunge as an important movement for pitchers for its correlation to velocity, as well as injury. They have created the “90mph formula” based on years of research with their athletes.

The formula is a roadmap, based on five training metrics, that they have found to be consistent with pitchers that can throw over 90 mph. Being strong in the reverse lunge is one metric in the formula. Those that do throw 90 mph or harder, yet can’t hit all the training metrics in the formula, are exponentially more prone to injury. While not published research yet, Josh and those at ATP have seen and shown the importance of the reverse lunge on lower body strength, and specifically on single leg strength in pitchers.

Progression to the Reverse Lunge

Progressing into the barbell reverse lunge often depends on the level of the athlete. The most common progression we take with our incoming athletes goes from static to dynamic. We work from unloaded to loaded through both those steps.

Static

1. ISO Lunge – Unweighted
   1. The ISO lunge teaches body positioning and the creation of tension.
   2. Low-level athletes will start at 15 seconds each leg with a 10-second rest between legs. We add time over the course of the progression, up to 30 seconds.
2. ISO Lunge – Weighted
   1. When the athlete can maintain 30 seconds, we add weight to the movement in the form of holding a plate in the front.
      1. Start back at 15 seconds each leg.
      2. Build to 30 seconds again.
   2. Note: You can use larger time frames here, but I find that 15- to 30-second sets fit well within the overall program as far as difficulty, ability to maintain posture, and training time are concerned.

Dynamic

3. Single Arm DB Reverse Lunge
   1. Athletes hold one DB in the hand opposite of their front leg.
   2. This achieves two things:
      1. Only holding one DB means a lighter overall load is used and movement efficacy can be prioritized.
      2. The single arm hold challenges the core musculature to a higher degree than holding two dumbbells does. It specifically emphasizes the all-important quadratus lumborum and obliques. Both are incredibly important muscles in back health and pelvic control.
   3. Reps are usually done in the 5-10 per leg range.
   4. Athletes perform all reps on one side before switching.
4. Barbell Reverse Lunge
   1. We prefer the front squat variation.
      1. Athletes must be familiar with the front squat grip before undertaking this movement. The ability to hold the bar correctly sets up the rest of the entire movement.
   2. Athletes alternate lunges in this variation: Right leg then left leg until they complete all reps.
   3. Load the barbell up.
      1. Train this pattern to be strong.

Just because athletes are performing a lunge movement doesn’t mean they can’t use low reps with high loads. Many coaches are nervous to train single leg patterns heavy with the barbell. In many cases they are right, as it is often difficult to maintain balance and/or dump a barbell if something goes wrong during the movement.

Just because athletes perform a #lunge movement doesn’t mean they can’t use low reps with high loads, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

That is one reason I prefer the front squat grip variation over the back squat. Holding and dumping the barbell becomes fairly easy and inconsequential when in front. The same can’t be said when the bar is on the back.

Parting Thoughts on Coaching the Reverse Lunge

Coaches also think of lunges as an assistance movement and pigeonhole it to be used only for higher reps and lighter weight. This couldn’t be further from the truth. The use of heavy loads has given us phenomenal gains in the past. Moving through the listed progressions wisely should set athletes up for success with the loaded barbell.

Athletes must show competence to use the weights early on. However, they will often shock you with how strong they really are in single leg patterns. It’s not uncommon for our pitchers, after a full training block, to reach upwards of 80-100% of their front squat max for heavy singles to triples on the reverse lunge.

Don’t be afraid to train with sets in the same zones as you would on other big compound movements, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

Don’t be afraid to train with sets in the same zones as you would on other big compound movements. The use of one to five reps per side can be incredibly effective in building a big and strong lower half. Heavy reverse lunges can be an asset in any program.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Bohannon, Richard W., et al. “Relationship of Pelvic and Thigh Motions During Unilateral and Bilateral Hip Flexion.” Physical Therapy. 1985: 65(1); 1501–1504. doi:10.1093/ptj/65.10.1501

Garrison, J. Craig, et al. “Baseball Players Diagnosed with Ulnar Collateral Ligament Tears Demonstrate Decreased Balance Compared to Healthy Controls.” Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. 2013: 43(10); 752-758. doi:10.2519/jospt.2013.4680

MacWilliams, Bruce A., et al. “Characteristic Ground-Reaction Forces in Baseball Pitching.” The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 1998: 26(1); 66–71. doi:10.1177/03635465980260014101

Matsuo, T., et al. “Comparison of kinematic and temporal parameters between different pitch velocity groups.” Journal of Applied Biomechanics. 2001: 17(1); 1-13.

McNally, Michael P., et al. “Stride Leg Ground Reaction Forces Predict Throwing Velocity in Adult Recreational Baseball Pitchers.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2015: 29(10); 2708–2715. doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000000937

 

Living and training at altitude has a number of beneficial effects for endurance athletes. Many high-level endurance athletes, across many different sports, live at altitude full-time, or use periods of altitude training to enhance their performance.

At the 2017 NCAA Cross Country Championships, in Divisions I and II, both the Men’s and Women’s team champions were from schools located at altitude. In Division I on the men’s side, Northern Arizona University, located in Flagstaff at 6,910 feet above sea level, won its second team title. On the women’s side, the University of New Mexico, located in Albuquerque at 5,312 feet, also won its second team title. In Division II, Adams State University, located in Alamosa, Colorado at 7,544 feet, won both the men’s and women’s team races for its 44th and 45th cross country team titles.

Additionally, a survey of medalists from the 2004 Athens Olympics found that 80% utilized altitude training in some form during their preparations.

The difficult questions, when using periods of altitude training rather than living at altitude, are when to go, for how long, and what to do while there in order to make the most of it. Before we can answer these questions, we need to look at the physiological adaptations to altitude to understand why it is beneficial.

How Much Does Altitude Improve Performance?

Altitude training increases aerobic ability by increasing the volume of red blood cells in the body, as well as the density of mitochondria and capillaries. The result is the ability to run faster for the same distance, or further at the same pace, improving endurance performance.

According to the USATF, 4 weeks at altitude can improve performance by 1-2%, and even up to 5%. Share on X

According to the USATF, a 28-day stint at altitude can improve performance by 1-2%, and some athletes have improved up to 5%. That doesn’t sound like much, but for a 31:00 10K runner, that is an improvement of 18-37 seconds, and up to 93 seconds.

Physiological Adaptations to Altitude

Living at altitude results in an increase in naturally occurring erythropoietin. Erythropoietin, abbreviated as EPO, is a hormone produced in the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells. Artificial EPO—synthetic or taken from human or animal sources—was originally developed for cancer patients to increase their red blood cell count, but it has become notorious for its use as a performance-enhancing drug, to exceed the levels naturally and safely produced by the body.

This increased red blood cell production depends on the altitude at which you live, and for how long you live there. Higher altitudes and longer residences result in the production of greater amounts of red blood cells.

In addition to greater oxygen availability as a result of more red blood cells, the efficiency of oxygen use also increases, as a result of the increase in bisphosphoglyceric acid, or BPG. BPG stabilizes deoxygenated red blood cells, allowing for greater oxygen removal from the cells to the working muscles.

Training at Altitude Variations

In order to maximize the effects of altitude, there are different ways an athlete can choose to live and train in a high-altitude environment.

Live High Train Low

Live high train low (LHTL) gives the benefits of altitude without as many of the negatives. The athlete still gains the physiological effects of living at altitude, while maintaining the ability to run sea level paces or sea level workouts. This is only possible in a few locations in the U.S., where there is easy access to both high and low altitudes within a short travel distance.

You can also simulate this type of training at sea level with the use of expensive altitude tents or altitude chambers. Altitude tents simulate the effects of altitude by increasing the percentage of nitrogen in the air, which decreases the percentage of oxygen.

Most altitude training, especially when athletes do short periods of it, will be live high train high (LHTH).

Live High Train High

When training at altitude, it is not always easy to travel to sea level or even lower altitudes. In these circumstances, living and training at the same or similar altitudes are employed. This format allows for the physiological changes to occur, but does require some adjustments to be made to training to accommodate the demands of altitude.

Adjusting Your Training

The reduced availability of oxygen essentially results in a reduced ability to run, as well as a reduced ability to recover from hard efforts, especially before adaptations have occurred.

Running slower, especially on easy days, is necessary to allow for proper recovery. This is because not only does living at altitude affect the acute ability to perform work, but the chronic effect slows down the recovery process.

At altitude, run for the same number of minutes a typical run for mileage would take at sea level. Share on X

Running for minutes, rather than miles, will result in the effect of running at sea level, without the psychological pressure to hit a certain mileage goal. Running for the same number of minutes a typical run for mileage would take at sea level is a good goal to shoot for. For example, instead of running for 10 miles at a 6:30 pace, at altitude you should just run for 65 minutes.

This same principle can be applied to tempo runs—running at a given effort for the same amount of time rather than a particular distance. This requires some discipline, because it is tempting to run too fast, in an attempt to run sea level pace or what you think altitude pace should be, especially when wearing a GPS watch. However, just like at sea level, when you run your tempo runs too fast, too much lactate is produced and the purpose of the workout is lost.

When performing interval workouts, you can modify them in three different ways for a given workout. If that given workout would be 6×1600 @ 5:00 with 2:30 rest at sea level, here are three examples to modify that.

1. 1. The first, and simplest, modification would be to perform the same distance, with the same rest, but at a slower pace to accommodate the altitude. Given an altitude of 7,500 feet, this would result in a workout of 6×1600 @ 5:18 with 2:30 rest. The problem with this workout is that when you go back to sea level and try to race at a 5:00 pace, it will feel challenging neuromuscularly. You will not be efficient at that pace because you have not run it, despite being aerobically fit from the altitude training. This type of modification is good, but it should also be matched with workouts that will neuromuscularly prepare you for the pace of sea level racing.

 

1. 1. The second strategy, to accommodate sea level pace, would be to increase the recovery between the intervals, in order to run them at the same pace. This would result in a workout of 6×1600 @ 5:00 with perhaps 3:00 or 3:30 rest. However, this begins to change the physiological effect of the workout, as the rests become very long between intervals, and the pace is faster than a 10K effort, at the current altitude.

 

1. Finally, you can break the intervals into shorter bouts to increase total rest so that you can run faster paces. A possible permutation of this workout would be 6x4x400 @ 75 with 60 seconds’ rest between reps, and the original 2:30 rest between sets. This modification approximates the results of a sea level workout, allows for sea level paces to be run, and keeps the recovery short enough to continually stimulate the proper energy system. The repetitions are also short enough that the altitude will not affect you as much as it would in longer repetitions.

Other Factors

When you train at altitude, there are a few other things you should know about to stay as healthy as possible.

When you live/train at altitude, take iron supplements, get more sleep, hydrate & dress in layers. Share on X

Iron Supplements

Athletes training at altitude should take iron supplements, as iron is a necessary component of red blood cell production. There are two different types of supplemental iron that can be taken: liquid and pill form. The liquid form is superior because it has a much higher absorption rate, relatively, than pill form. However, it is also more likely to upset your stomach. The recommendation would be to try the liquid form, and if you can’t handle it, take the pill form instead.

Many manufacturers recommend that their iron supplements be taken with food. This will reduce the likelihood of stomach upset, but will also severely impede absorption. To maximize the already low absorption rates, do not take iron within an hour before or after eating, and only pair it with a high vitamin C liquid. Avoid calcium in this period, because it especially impedes iron absorption.

Take iron for a few weeks before the start of altitude training, to build up the ferratin stores that are used when creating new red blood cells. If ferratin stores are too low to create new red blood cells, spending a few weeks at altitude will not have the hoped-for beneficial effects.

Sleep

While living and training at altitude, it is important to get more sleep, for two reasons. The first is that sleep quality can be worse while at altitude, so spending more time in bed to get the same number of REM cycles and quality becomes necessary. The second is that altitude is an additional stressor on the body, which requires extra recovery.

Dehydration

Most altitude locations have very low humidity. When this is combined with the higher respiration rate at altitude, there is a greater loss of water through expiration and sweating. In order to replace this, it is necessary to drink extra water frequently, and in larger volumes than usual, the whole time you are at altitude.

Temperature Changes

Because of the elevation, temperature changes are much greater at higher elevations, compared to lower elevations. Keep this in mind when you plan to spend more than a few hours outside. If you are planning on increasing elevation, be prepared for a decrease of anywhere from 3-6 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on conditions, per 1,000 feet of elevation gain. Dress in layers that you can add or remove as necessary.

Altitude Sickness

Altitude sickness is a reaction to increasing altitude too quickly. It usually occurs above 10,000 feet; however, it can occur at any point. The symptoms include a headache, nausea, loss of appetite, shortness of breath, fast heart rate, and fatigue. The only remedy is to reduce your elevation, or take supplemental oxygen. You can preempt altitude sickness by taking iron ahead of time, hydrating properly and adequately, and increasing your altitude a little at a time.

How High to Live

For short stints at altitude, the best elevation seems to be between 7,000 and 8,000 feet. One study suggested that, during a short stint, only athletes that lived and trained in this range had measurable increases in Vo2 max, as well as improvements in 3,000-meter race performances.

The comfort of a lower elevation may balance out the larger emotional stress of a higher altitude. Share on X

Any elevation above 3,000 feet is considered altitude, with increasing physiological response as altitude increases, up to about 9,000 or 10,000 feet. The comfort and convenience of a lower elevation might also balance out the extra physiological effects but increased emotional stress of a higher altitude location. Especially with your first trip to altitude, making it an easy and comfortable experience outweighs trying to get as high as possible, or trying for some optimal altitude.

The Optimal Length of Stay at Altitude

There is a clear increase in red blood cells after just one week at altitude, but the increases are exponential for each additional week. This is especially true in the three- to four-week range.

A stay of 3-4 weeks will result in the best ratio of red blood cell production to time at altitude. Share on X

Any time spent at altitude will result in some improvement in red blood cell production, but a stay of three to four weeks will result in the best ratio of red blood cell production, compared to time spent at altitude.

References

Chapman, Robert & Wilber, Randy. “Altitude Training for Sea Level Performance: Best Practices and Timing for Championships.” Handout for 2011 IAAF Athletic Championships, Daegu, South Korea.

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