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Chances are, you’re already using biofeedback and don’t know it. Or like most coaches, you’re familiar with it enough to do something proactive but not enough to feel like you’ve reached its full potential. We believe in using technology, but only enough to make a difference, not so much that we feel dependent on it or it slows us down (although sometimes this is unavoidable). In our experience, athletes love technology and we value data. But we don’t want it to get out of control and turn into another selfie experience.

In the last two years, we’ve invested heavily in technology to get more information on our athletes so we can design better workouts and improve our results. We learned that technology that provides a measurement has helped us tremendously. Each passing week and season, we get a little more versed in its role and its shortcomings. Trends don’t always dictate action, but when science and experience link up, it’s hard to ignore.

Differences Between Biofeedback and General Feedback

Perfectly defining biofeedback is not easy, and the things we’re doing with biofeedback only scratch the surface. I’m not even sure everything we label biofeedback qualifies as such but, for now, it’s close enough. A good definition for biofeedback is included in the article “Biofeedback for Sport and Performance Enhancement.” Although I recommend reading the article, I’ll save you the exploratory search and include the definition here:

“Biofeedback training is a technique of gaining control of self-regulation, based on information or feedback received from the athletes’ body and mind.”

When you hear the term biofeedback, most coaches think about relaxation drills to lower heart rate or hooking up an athlete’s brain to help them discover how to get into the zone. Honestly, we don’t teach many sport psychology methods for relaxation at our facility, but we’ve used stress monitoring for years with heart rate variability apps. We should not stigmatize biofeedback as a way to teach athletes how to deal with nerves. We should see it as a method to connect the real world to what athletes experience internally.

#Biofeedback connects the real world to what athletes experience internally, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance Share on X

There’s a difference, however, between helping a minimally-trained athlete understand their body and using biofeedback to pull the last bit of performance out of a well-trained elite athlete. Using technology and common sense to monitor and manipulate an athlete’s program constantly (relax, it doesn’t have to be changed every day because of a bad HRV score or jump performance) takes experience using the technology and a lot of time to understand the data and what it’s telling you. But it’s application is invaluable.

We’re not trying to redefine biofeedback, but when we add a direct measurement, good training has the potential to be great training. While coaches have always used feedback from their eyes, direct measurements cut the middleman out of the equation. It doesn’t hurt our ego if an athlete is independent. We should be nudging them forward and not hand-holding all the time. At our facility, you’ll see Sean and me coaching—you’ll also see independent training when an athlete is properly educated.

General feedback is any information given to the athlete while biofeedback comes from a specific measurement added to the mix. General feedback is important, but without measurement it’s limited. We do both, and the results are far better than they would be if we excluded either one.

Barbell Tracking: Getting the Most of Every Rep

Don’t worry, we won’t bore you by rehashing the same ideas that are in just about every velocity based training (VBT) article released. We want to make a point about taking the next step rather than simply copying the latest fad. Plenty of research and coaching blogs talk about bar speed and getting athletes better just by showing them their velocity readings. Using velocity feedback helps, but why not crank it up a notch and consider barbell tracking as a whole?

Biofeedback on distance and bar path could be just as valuable to coaches and athletes. Arguably, a beginner athlete might not need to focus on velocity when they’re not sure how to set up their feet, but a tool that provides more information about depth and bar path could prove very beneficial for engraining a pattern. Although it’s not always about more information, when is the right information ever wrong?

Video 1. Coaches care about three goals during lifts, which become very simple when the loads become heavy. Having an athlete maintain technique, effort, and awareness of fatigue is everything when working with large groups.

Just the other day, a research article on feedback using GymAware was pushed on social media, promoting the idea that giving the athlete more information increases their power when training. I like that. Although you shouldn’t need a piece of technology to tell you when to pull a kid back and polish up technique, you can easily display such information to the athlete using the right tool. We love autoregulation and have plenty of ready-to-go templates for athletes who earned their right to self-select (some of) their programming. Using a GymAware keeps everyone honest, including the coaches.

We care about accountability—making an athlete value the disciplined lifting requirements that differentiate an athlete who is just doing a workout from the athlete mastering their training. In the short run, using GymAware makes an athlete compete and instantly aware of what they’re doing. In the long run, with back-end reporting, we see the little differences that show they achieved the desired result.

Biofeedback isn’t only for the athlete to get higher wattage. It also lets the coach see if the athlete is adhering to the instructional side of training and how coachable they are. We’ve used the GymAware system for a while now and realize it’s not new, but we’ve seen trust foster when an athlete knows what we say matches up with what the device’s readings.

Digital Pacing and Conditioning with LED Rabbit

If you’ve ever been tested in a group setting or competed in race events, you’ll know a lot about pacing. Biofeedback with pacing works. Instead of showing an athlete what they can do, the feedback helps an athlete become aware of how fast they should go. Pacing with technology is chasing a ghost you can never beat, but you’re not truly competing with a machine.

Instead of showing athletes what they can do, #biofeedback helps them become aware of how fast they should go, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance Share on X

In our experience, a percentage of athletes fail conditioning tests due to their ignorance and a lack of understanding about the pace needed to pass. With the LED Rabbit, we now have a way to add instant visual feedback as an athlete learns and practices pacing. Nothing is wrong with an old school stopwatch and whistle, but making an athlete feel like they’re in a video game beats them sitting on a couch all day.

LED Rabbit offers instant visual feedback to help athletes learn and practice pacing, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance #biofeedback Share on X

At the gym, we joke about how athletes will start calling shuttle tests the light test instead of the beep test in a few years. The basic timed beep is biofeedback, but adding LED lights moves a program from medieval to high tech. The solution is literally “flashy,” but don’t confuse engaging for entertaining. Light pacing systems are perhaps one of the best ways to connect athletes to what they’re doing when implemented properly.

Track and performance coaches will be most intrigued by the light system. Having pacing lights for long sprints (400m) and endurance work requires a curb to have LED lighting, but you can do so much more. Performance coaches can use the LED Rabbit to set and keep athletes on pace. Conditioning tests are the most difficult to sell to athletes, but nearly any team coach worth their salt wants to know if the athletes are just as fit as they are fast. And besides, although disheartening to some extent, it’s easier to sell a coach and team on fitness rather than speed.

Video 2. Pacing shuttle tests with smart LED systems will not be the trend—it will be the future as the research supports the approach. Adding pacing improves the workout, as better data is not just about accuracy, it’s about knowing how an athlete can push themselves.

We have some great ideas for the future, such as using the LED Rabbit as a coaching tool. While we trust our eyes and have video, having a light system for an athlete is like a metronome for a musician. We’ve barely even started with light-pacing and other technologies and plan to watch this space as it grows and matures. After one trial, the value was obvious. And we expect creative coaches to find a way to make this even more useful and effective in the next few months. 

EMG: Are Your Muscles Firing?

Everyone in this profession has heard an athlete or fellow coach ask about a muscle not firing properly. If someone knows or feels that a muscle is not functioning, then let’s stop the guesswork and see for ourselves. If you don’t trust the research and are suspicious of the information shared by the lab coats, try getting your hands on electromyography (EMG) equipment and experiment for yourself.

#EMG #biofeedback is fantastic for experimenting with exercises when research isn't available, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance Share on X

We are no strangers to EMG but don’t use it often and don’t claim to be scientists. We do have access to equipment that we could use for lab experiments, but as coaches we care about simple and easy wins. In our experience, EMG is strictly for research and simple biofeedback; it’s not a perfect monitoring tool yet. For something to be used as an everyday monitoring tool, it must check a few boxes:

• Simple set up and implementation
• Quick feedback and easy to interpret data
• Group-friendly

EMG isn’t going to solve every problem, but we’re huge fans of getting your hands on a device and experimenting with a few exercises “to get to the bottom of things,” pun intended, with all the glute activation hype.

Exercise selection and EMG are tied together a little too much, but where there’s smoke, there’s sometimes fire. Enough science behind EMG tells us that it’s acceptable to trust the measurements from experiments. The only problem is that not every exercise is researched, especially with machines and movements that are less common.

Here at Exceed, this is our second year using Athos. We just got the second generation product, and clearly they’ve upgraded the shirt and pants. Coaches who are engaged enough to purchase an EMG system are probably smart enough to know the difference between in-the-trenches use and a formal research study. Watching a screen change colors is not coaching and certainly not science. When you have a specific purpose, however, EMG feedback is fantastic.

Video 3. Knowing when muscle activity is absent is just as valuable as knowing when the muscle contracts. Using wearable EMG to assess a movement’s effectiveness is an established practice, but real-time feedback is just as exciting.

Early return to play is the area we expect to see the product working well for us in the future. An injured athlete is desperate for answers and is a far more willing participant with wearable technology. From working with athletes in the past, we’ve also learned they can have trust issues and sometimes feel betrayed by their bodies. EMG can reduce issues athletes have with confidence by showing that they can get their injured muscles working as well as the muscles that help reduce injuries. Right and left symmetry is tricky and requires analysis on the back end with the portal, but with early stage rehab, the app is straightforward enough.

Heart Rate Monitoring: What’s Old Is New Again

It’s true, heart rate monitoring is old news. Some coaches have chosen not to worry about it and have gone “organic,” trusting an athlete’s ability to listen to their body. Other coaches are like lab technicians and spend enormous amounts of time hooking up gear to their athletes looking for a magic number to crack the code. Don’t be in a tribe or camp that’s polarizing. Don’t be obsessed with heart rate data or ignorant of the research. Heart rate data helps model performance and recovery and is one of the most well-established ways to monitor training.

Directly providing feedback to athletes has been done with cycling mounts and wrist watches. These are great options for endurance athletes, but what about rowing circuits or tempo runs over longer distances? Mounting flat screens or even small displays isn’t a real solution for everyone. A more connected solution is smart glasses. The Google Glass attempt failed to hit the mainstream, and the ReconJet product line died, but we’re hoping that the Solos product pans out.

Instantaneous heart rate is very useful for conditioning, showing an athlete the actual work they’re producing rather than the “perception deception” that often occurs on days where they may be a little tired and experience unrealistic indications of fatigue. Though smart glasses aren’t for everyone, they’re likely to become more common, so it’s best to prepare for them.

Jumping and Speed Performance: Adding Intelligence to Effort

Last is the most obvious way to gauge effort and improvement, providing feedback for jumping and sprinting. It’s useful to know how fast an athlete is or how well they jump out or up. The two questions coaches must consider are whether they want to test athletes frequently and whether they want to enter the realm of training with velocity and distance. The technology to do both exists, but the bandwidth for coaches working with groups in real time is challenging and may not be for everyone.

Biofeedback doesn’t need to occur in every session. In fact, running on full throttle all the time can burn out an athlete. It’s not necessary to always use adrenaline for the dirty work—and it’s a little reckless in our book. Sprinting, while far more complex, is actually easier to manage than jumping.

While IMUs are viable and marketed as a jumping solution, they only estimate performance and don’t provide an accurate way to monitor jumping in the wild. In an isolated test, sure you can test an athlete, but coaches want to see information in real time with high accuracy. What is the solution? Know how much information is enough to get better, not to feed a curiosity addiction.

There’s a lot of excitement over flying sprints or short sprints, but what about the work between high-intensity training days? From middle school to pros, we see what happens when you gaslight everything all the time. The cost of sprinting on the body is enormous, so sprinting fast without chasing personal records is a responsibility we bear for our athletes in the long run.

Knowing an athlete's best current performance & what relative #speeds they respond to is everything, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance #biofeedback Share on X

Using speeds between all-out and barely stimulatory is about 10%, so the margin of error is wide for coaches to get results without sprinting all-out. Athletes have different responses to effort: some improve technique, some maintain it, and of course, some fall apart. Knowing an athlete’s best current performance and what relative speeds they respond to is everything.

Although it takes longer and requires more work, programming speed and timing is only the starting point. True, arousal and adrenaline help, but so do rest and recovery. Timing is not only about bringing the best out of an athlete for one session but also knowing how to “release the hounds” properly for the whole season. Timing and monitoring are extremely helpful as feedback tools because, as many coaches know, our 70% and their 70% and their friends’ 70% are often vastly different.

Video 4. Force analysis is great for planning, but simple measures like height are valuable as well. It doesn’t matter which testing system you use for immediate feedback, though deeper analysis does require more information than contact mats provide.

At our facility, we have a considerable number of athletes who roll through each day. It wouldn’t benefit them, or even be possible for that matter, to test and monitor them using all of our technology everyday. Depending on the time of year, we treat them on a case by case basis, at least in a global view, considering the level of athlete, the frequency of their training, and sometimes just for the hell of it.

We test some athletes as a monitoring tool. Some of them train using technology to ensure effort and purpose. And others train and test periodically just to ensure they’re “trending” positively. There are many ways to use jump and sprint testing as biofeedback tools. There is no if, just how you want to do it.

Don’t Only Keep it Simple, Keep it Transparent

There are plenty of other options, including video feedback (which we swear by), but that would take an entire article to cover fully. We wanted to show how simple additions of the appropriate technology could improve a workout. Technology doesn’t make your job obsolete; it makes you more effective and more productive. If you add one piece of technology to training to help with feedback, you’ll start to see the results pile up. Don’t forget that feedback includes human interaction, as honest reminders of effort and timely compliments can mean everything to an athlete. Let the sports technology do the monkey work and focus on doing what you do best as a coach.

#Technology doesn't make coaches obsolete, it makes us more effective and productive, says @ExceedSPF. #athleteperformance #biofeedback Share on X

Nobody wants to make things unnecessarily complex, but the human body is a very complicated organism. While we never try to dumb down the process at Exceed, we understand that if the information is not bite-sized, it will likely backfire. We have rarely experienced a paralysis by analysis from information overload, but we do see an argument that too much feedback all the time can get messy. You don’t need to ensure everything all the time, but we never like making absolute statements of what we believe without getting a number we can trust.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

I frequently hear coaches repeat the mantra that kids are not miniature adults, only to see them then turn around and program exercises and practices using adult-driven ideas rather than youth-centered principles. Don’t believe me? Raise your hand if you (or someone you know) work with prepubescent children and use any of the following approaches:

• Foam rolling.
• Functional movement screens.
• Standards to advance young athletes from one phase of training to another, such as every athlete must be able to complete 20 push-ups before they can bench press.
• Words and phrases like “mental toughness,” “grit,” and “drills.”
• Using the term “elite” for youngsters under 12 years of age.
• Cherry-picking the “best athletes” for your U-10 team while the others ride the bench.
• Having an “A” and a “B” team.

OK, you can put your hand down now. While there are many examples in our current sports/strength and conditioning cultures, these seven “deadly” sins illustrate the point that many coaches say they are youth-centric, but what they do tells a different story.

Many coaches say they are youth-centric, but what they do with their youth athletes tells a different story, says @rihoward41. Share on X

Where is the evidence for these practices? While some of these approaches have not necessarily been shown to be detrimental, their use has no evidence grounded in science and could be more harmful than beneficial. Since there have not been controlled studies conducted in the prepubescent population, we can’t be sure yet, as there is no evidence one way or the other. These pursuits, however, are based on adult thinking, showing that coaches don’t always really mean it when they say kids are not miniature adults. Just because it works for high school, college, and pro athletes, does not necessarily mean it is applicable for youngsters (hence the mantra in the first place, kids are not miniature adults).

Each of the following seven practices (which match up to the seven bullet points above), are evidence-based and help kids reach their potential. To be truly youth-centered, consider using the following practices:

Let Kids Solve Movement Problems

Get kids to move and encourage movement in all three planes of motion. For this first recommendation, letting kids solve movement problems achieves the same benefits for them as foam rolling does for adults: increased blood flow, improved movement, increased range of motion, and decreased risk of injury. Once they can master movement in all three planes separately, have them move in a combination of planes.

Let kids move in all of these scenarios: on their own, with some guidance, and under direct supervision. Encourage them to move regularly. Move with them! Many kids do not get the opportunity to move often enough. Help them increase their movement vocabulary before prescribing more work for them where they do not get to move, such as some popular mobility and flexibility techniques that are intended for adults but may not be justified for use with children.

Use Your ‘Coach’s Eye’ to Observe Foundational Movements

Screening only a few movements will not tell the whole movement story and has not been shown to be valid and reliable in kids. Instead, consider whether kids can adequately master motor skills in the locomotor, object control, and body awareness categories. These are important first steps before you attempt complex movements incorporating more than one motor skill.

For example, kids should be able to run well and kick well before attempting to run and kick (you remember playing kickball in elementary school recess and some kids would miss the ball, right?). Kids should also focus on the seven primary movements: hinge, squat, lunge, brace, rotate, push, pull (and many coaches now include carry). Also consider adding movements kids can use for sports and for the rest of their lives (swimming, biking, etc.).

Promote Opportunities for Kids to Develop Competence in All Fitness Attributes

Trainable health-fitness attributes include muscle strength, muscle endurance, flexibility, and cardiovascular endurance. Skills-fitness attributes include “ABC-PS”: Agility, balance, coordination, power, and speed. Always incorporate motor skills. When including strength movements, remember it is difficult within the construct of strength to compare a measure of relative strength (strength per body weight, such as a push-up) to a measure of absolute strength (strength moving an external object, such as a bench press). The two are not necessarily related. If you are truly building movement vocabularies for kids, you will find a way to include both exercises at the level that best matches each child’s ability.

Focus on the Phrase ‘Physical Literacy’

Use sports, fitness, activities, and free play to find what works best on any given day. Make sure to provide youngsters with opportunities to move in a variety of ways on a variety of surfaces under a variety of conditions (this is why drills are not always effective). Let them try different things and figure it out their way. Build off of successful movement. Use positive cueing (keep your head up instead of don’t look down, for example).

Provide youngsters with opportunities to move in a variety of ways on a variety of surfaces under a variety of conditions, says @rihoward41. Share on X

Replace ‘Elite’ with Words Like ‘Wellness’ and ‘Balance’

These terms apply to physical, mental, social, technical, and tactical abilities. Our role is to build successful movers. Some of us do that through sports, some through physical education, some through strength and conditioning, and some via positive parenting. All of us are in this together to help kids be successful movers from cradle to grave, not to be on the championship U-10 A team.

Focus on holistic development for every child, and balance their physical, emotional, social, psychological, and educational wellness. The wellness wheel is flat if you don’t help kids develop all aspects of wellness. Remember, they are kids. Some play sports. Some play video games. How are you getting them to be healthy, fit, ready to learn, and the best they can be?

Teach Kids Every Position in a Variety of Sports (and How to Play on Their Own)

Since the majority of coaches are not tracking peak height (and weight) velocity, it is difficult to tell whether your tallest player at age 10 will be the tallest player at age 16, for example. Why not teach every player every position and have league rules that dictate that every player must play x number of plays at y number of positions?

Be sure that kids learn to play different positions in a variety of sports. At best, every player can grow and develop and be ready to play the position that best matches their stature. At worst, every player develops a sense of what each different position is like. This may benefit their “field sense,” which is their awareness of their surroundings and anticipation of what will unfold on the field of play.

Instead of an ‘A’ and a ‘B’ Team, Mix Kids of All Abilities Together

Since you are coaching a team (remember, Together Everyone Achieves More), make it a team effort. Have the kids with a specific skill set work with those that are still learning. Rotate kids of different abilities into different roles so they become successful through the teamwork the group can instill. We love to watch the videos on social media showing someone who we would not expect to succeed having their shining moment due to the selflessness of their teammates. Why not make this a common occurrence?

Further Considerations

When we repeat that kids are not miniature adults, here are some developmental considerations so that we can make the right decisions for strength and conditioning and sports practice:

Physical: Children’s growth and development is nonlinear, meaning it does not always follow a straight path. Watch kids who seem to have a decrease in performance (especially during their growth spurt, which is why it is called “adolescent awkwardness”). Meet them where they are across the developmental continuum.

They do not have the fully mature physical size, strength, and stamina of an adult, so they should not be trained the same way. Always err on the side of caution. Kids have thinner skin (literally). Children breathe in more air per pound of body weight, while taking fewer overall breaths per minute. Children have less fluid in their bodies, so fluid loss has a bigger effect. They often believe they are not working as hard as they are, so coaches should monitor them and provide adequate rest breaks.

Emotional: Children feel less of a sense of control in many situations, understand less about certain situations, and have less experience at bouncing back from challenging situations, so mental stress can be harder on them. They may not feel situations with the same intensity as adults. That does not mean they need to be mentally tougher—it means they are kids. Coaches must recognize where each athlete is on the developmental continuum for physical, emotional, and social growth. That said, kids need to be able to fail, and know that is often how learning occurs.

Kids need to be able to fail, and know that is often how learning occurs, says@rihoward41. Share on X

Social: Kids tend to be self-centered, developmentally—meaning they focus mainly on themselves. Their own personality is not yet fully developed. Their role models are adults, usually their parents. They have not yet developed empathy. Youngsters need a caring, child-centric coach who understands the developmental differences and needs of kids.

When coaches focus on the physical, emotional, and psychosocial developmental needs of kids, it cultivates a kids-first culture and ensures that their physical literacy through sport, fitness, and play is nurtured. Youngsters exposed to this type of environment are more likely to be motivated to participate since their needs are being met. Kids also will drop out less as they will be having fun (not having fun is the No. 1 reason kids stop playing sports; not playing and getting yelled at are two reasons kids don’t have fun).

This approach provides kids with a wide variety of movement opportunities across a broad spectrum of sports. Since fitness, play, and fun are included, aspiring athletes will have a reduced risk of injury. Since all kids are given consistent opportunities to enhance their movement capabilities, they will develop the movement competence and self-efficacy that is so important for them to want to continue to move in sports and throughout their lives.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Conditioning for baseball pitchers has long consisted of work that is non-specific to the demands of the game. Often, what you find on baseball fields all over America is a combination of long, slow, distance work or high-intensity interval-type sprints with incomplete recoveries. Not only are these not specific to the energy system needed for the sport, but they compete with adaptive reserves that could be more useful in other processes.

In truth, any talk of energy system development with baseball athletes should start and stop with the alactic system. The question becomes whether there is a purpose for developing the oxidative or anaerobic-glycolytic systems in baseball. The oxidative and anaerobic-glycolytic energy systems may have their place in other sports, but I tend to disagree that they are useful for baseball athletes.

The oxidative and anaerobic-glycolytic energy systems may have their place in other sports, but I tend to disagree that they are useful for baseball athletes, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

All too often, coaches judge the training for a sport by “how much?” and “how hard?” If it doesn’t max out those two qualities, then training was a waste of time. Possibly the most misunderstood concept in training athletes is that of developing energy systems or “conditioning.”

Energy systems do not work independently, despite what virtually every student in an exercise science class is taught. All three energy systems are always active in every aspect of performance. One doesn’t kick in at a certain time and shut off at another time in succession. Each system’s contribution varies according to the intensity and the duration of the activity being performed. So, if all systems are active at any one point, why wouldn’t it be beneficial to train all three systems?

One reason is adaptive reserves. It makes little sense to spend a large amount of time on training something that contributes very little, if at all. Athletes only have so much energy to adapt to training stimuli. When more and more gets added to their plate, they lose the ability to adapt to a specific stimulus, and this, for a pitcher, should be alactic power. Over the course of long seasons, high volumes of non-specific work will take their toll on the body.

Physical and Mental Demands of Pitching

With that in mind, let’s look at the average action of a baseball pitch. A pitcher’s total motion is usually in the range of about 1.0-1.5 seconds in duration, from initial movement to ball release. The ball is thrown back and the next pitch is started on average around the 12- to 15-second mark. This is a 1:10+ work-to-rest ratio if we’re being conservative, but it could easily be higher. If we look at the standards for work-to-rest ratios according to the NSCA guidelines, this places pitching in the alactic zone.

Pitching isn’t always an all-out maximal effort throughout the motion, either. If we compare throwing a pitch to another 1- or 1.5-second event, for most athletes this would be a 7- to 10-meter sprint. The sprint, however, is an all-out maximal effort event. Pitching—and this is very dependent upon the individual—is often a controlled buildup of momentum and energy into a maximal effort at release.

Coaches have traditionally adored running pitchers to no end in season. After all, they need their legs under them to be able to pitch, right?! Baseball has long been a slave to the belief that pitching is built around a foundation of running to condition the body. General running is not specific, nor is it complementary to speed or the power development needed by pitchers. Too much long, slow, distance work or too many lactate-producing interval runs can compromise gains on the other end of the spectrum.

What about high heart rates in games…

What about the case of the heart rate? Heart rates do often climb, with starting pitchers in the 140-170 bpm range. However, studies have shown that elevated, in-game heart rates are more associated with perceived stress and anxiety when on the mound than to physical activity. In fact, one study on heart rates during pitching showed the highest heart rates were during home games in the first two innings, followed by a gradual decrease each inning thereafter. Compared to road games, there was a significant difference. Again, this shows how much emotional excitement in front of the home crowd affects heart rates.

Well, we run them to clear lactate from previous starts…

Yes, the old theory of running endlessly to clear lactic acid out of the arm is still around. A pitcher’s effort generally lasts less than 1.5 seconds, with long rest as detailed above. This does not even come close to a buildup of lactate. Soreness in the throwing arm following an outing does not come from lactic acid buildup. Lactate is actually a good thing when it comes to energy system development, but that’s for another time.

Pitcher soreness comes from the massive stretch shortening cycle, as well as eccentric forces placed upon the arm and body, not lactic acid buildup, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

Pitchers become sore from the massive stretch shortening cycle, as well as eccentric forces placed upon the arm and body from rapid acceleration and deceleration. Huge distraction forces up to 1x bodyweight are placed upon the shoulder during every throw.

What is the role, if any, that each energy system can play in the grand scheme of the pitcher?

Benefits of the Aerobic System for Power Athletes

The aerobic energy system is built for the long haul for low-intensity bouts. It was previously thought that the aerobic system kicked in around 90 seconds to two minutes into exercise, but it is now known that the aerobic system is present from the get-go and much more important than originally thought. The benefits of a properly functioning aerobic system often go beyond long-distance running sports. There are several advantages to developing the oxidative system.

Vagal Tone and the Parasympathetic Nervous System

One of the biggest benefits of aerobic training pertains to autonomic nervous system regulation. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) makes up one part of the body’s nervous system. The ANS is broken into two parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is known as “fight or flight.” This system is related to stress. The SNS runs overtime when stress is present, whether in the form of competitions, strenuous training, money problems, relationship issues, etc. For the most part, the SNS is overly active in most Americans due, more than anything, to our thoughts. But you can see that high-intensity training and competitions also fall under the umbrella of the SNS, which relates back to athletes. The SNS runs overtime for baseball athletes who play multiple competitions per week.

On the flip side, we have the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The PNS is known as “rest and digest.” The PNS is where we want athletes to be when not training or competing. It stimulates recovery in the body and athletes make gains when recovering, not when training. Low-intensity aerobic methods stimulate the PNS. A foundation of aerobic development helps the body recover from sympathetic stressors. It helps to lower everyday energy usage and prepare for future stressors.

A 2012 study by James, et al. demonstrated that subjects participating in severe exercise bouts experienced an increased sympathetic influence on the heart and a decreased parasympathetic tone. It was shown that intense repeated training stressed the subject’s ability to engage the parasympathetic nervous system and maintain homeostasis.

ATP Replenishment

Another huge benefit of the aerobic system is its ability to regenerate ATP and the removal of waste products during bouts of alactic work. The aerobic system is hard at work during short, high-intensity bouts of alactic training. Rest periods rely on the aerobic process to replace substrates essential to the replenishment of ATP. A large foundation of aerobic development can mean a more powerful alactic system, especially when it comes to alactic capacity, or the ability to reproduce high-powered outputs for a long duration. This doesn’t necessarily affect the game of baseball, but a very small case could be made for pitchers.

While the aerobic system can play a vital role in energy-system-dominant sports, it’s still not a main player in the sport of baseball, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

While the aerobic system can play a vital role in energy-system-dominant sports, it’s still not a main player in the sport of baseball. Athletes can achieve the necessary aerobic adaptations with work that doesn’t stray far from the ultimate goal of speed and power development.

Guidelines for Movement Circuits and Dynamic Warm-Ups

Two great methods for creating an underlying foundation of aerobic capacity are movement circuits and extended dynamic warm-ups. These are excellent for pitchers on the day following a start or high-intensity mound effort. Keeping the heart rate elevated in the range of 120-150 bpm for 20-30 minutes can create a low-intensity aerobic capacity adaptation.

A quality movement series the following day restores ranges of motion throughout fascial and muscular systems. It pushes lymph throughout the body, which aids in the elimination of waste products and supplies the tissues with oxygenated blood.

It’s no surprise that a one-sided asymmetrical activity would cause motion adaptations, so using movement circuits the following day helps to kill two birds with one stone. Not only do we stimulate recovery processes in the body, but we can do so while training and developing the oxidative system to a small degree and assisting the body’s ability to easily return to a parasympathetic state.

A properly put together, daily, dynamic warm-up can stimulate a foundation for aerobic adaptations.

Parameters:

1. Heart rates maintained at 120-150 bpm even during rest periods.

2. Lower reps – generally between 5 and 10, at most.

a. Usually no more than 5 each side.
If reps are too high, heart rates will climb, and lactate accumulation can begin to outpace elimination. We don’t want that happening at this time.

3. Rest periods

a. HR stays above 120 bpm.

4. Movements

a. Total body compound movements.
b. We often superset a lower movement, upper movement, core, and mobility movement for multiple sets. You may ask how we do a large compound movement but then suggest a lower, upper, and so on. An upper body movement may be a push-up with rotation or push-up into a DB Row. These use the entire anterior and lateral chain, in many cases. Five reps per side and most athletes’ heart rates will climb. Use a short rest that allows it to drop back to the 120-bpm mark before the next movement begins.

Tempo Runs and Pitchers

Tempo runs are low-intensity sprints performed at 65-75% of max speed. They are essentially between full-out sprints and jogging. They were termed “tempo runs” by the great Canadian sprint coach Charlie Francis. He utilized tempo runs as not only a form of aerobic development for sprinters, but a means of recovery in his high/low system of programming.

Tempo runs are an excellent means of recovery work on low-intensity days. Staying in the 65-75% range for max speed is essential for nervous system recovery. Francis’ beliefs focused on eliminating the middle ground of sprinting at 76-95% intensities. These intensities are too slow to be utilized for speed development, and too fast for recovery. They become too intensive to recover from quickly and create residual fatigue for the next high-intensity day. When that happens, the main work can suffer. Tempo runs give athletes a more specific training effect without substantial nervous system fatigue.

1. Aerobic Development

Tempo runs give athletes the benefits of cardiovascular development in a fashion more complementary to the rest of their training. They are essentially short sprints followed by rest intervals long enough to keep lactate at bay.

2. Capillary Density

A huge benefit that Charlie Francis touted with tempo runs was increased capillary density. Low-intensity tempo runs build a larger capillary network throughout the muscle. Increasing capillary density provides several benefits to baseball athletes.

a. Staying Warmer
Increasing capillary density creates more heat throughout the muscle and allows for the muscle to stay warmer longer. This is hugely important for Olympic-level sprinters, as their training runs often require 10-20 minutes of rest to ensure full recovery. The ability to stay warm is key. With baseball, this is an absolute no-brainer. Pitchers are always active while on the mound, but they have long periods of sitting and waiting to go out for the next inning.
b. Blood Flow and Nutrient Transfer
Enhanced capillary density improves blood flow throughout the muscle complex. Increasing blood flow not only enhances heat, but also improves oxygenation and nutrient transfer. Nutrient transfer is important not just for the benefits of more nutrient availability on the good side, but also the removal of waste products on the bad side.

Tempo Parameters

Rest Intervals

I prefer a walking rest interval based upon distance during tempo runs. This is generally a 1:2 ratio in terms of yardage. Take the distance of each rep and walk half that between each run. If athletes do 100-yard tempo runs, I have them walk to the 25-yard line and back for their rest interval, for a total of 50 yards.

Intensity

The intensity is the most important element of tempo runs. Athletes should stay within the zone of 65-75% of maximum speed. Calculations can be made based upon an athlete’s best 60-meter time or other sprint time, but I find it unnecessary to do a bunch of calculations. I rely on the athletes to determine their own 65-75%. The best indicator of proper intensity is an athlete being able to perform the first rep and the last rep at the same intensity. An athlete running too fast will begin to fatigue, and the last reps will be slower and more tiring than the first. Tempo runs should be almost refreshing to the body. Fatigue should not be a large factor.

Total Volume

The total volume depends on goals, but I often stay between 1,000 and 1,600 total yards of volume. At times, we may work up close to 2,000 yards, but those times are few and far between. Charlie Francis used 2,000+ yards as his standard for 100-meter sprinters. Coaches should build volume gradually, just as they would with any other new stimulus.

Distance

Each run varies from 50 to 100 yards, but a variety of distances can be effective.

Location

In general, tempo runs should be performed on a softer surface. Grass makes for the best surface to eliminate any repetitive pounding that many baseball athletes may not be used to.

Alactic Methods and Training Concepts

The anaerobic-alactic system is our bread and butter when it comes to baseball development. The alactic system is also known as the Phosphagen, or ATP-PC system. This system relies on few processes to rapidly produce energy for explosive efforts, but it comes at the cost of being very short in duration. For baseball athletes, that cost rarely comes into play, as the alactic system usually reaches its limits after 10+ seconds.

The ultimate goal for baseball is producing higher alactic outputs, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

Alactic means and methods consist of short-duration movements dealing with strength training, jumps, medball throws, sled pushes, sprints, etc. The duration, intensity, and rest intervals of each determine whether it is truly alactic or not. Training for strength, speed, and power is generally considered alactic. The ultimate goal for baseball is producing higher alactic outputs.

1. Strength Training

a. Dynamic effort
• 40-70%
• Maximal acceleration
• 1-3 reps
• High number of sets

b. Rep and max effort

• 70+%
• 1-5 reps
• Low to moderate number of sets

2. Speed Training

a. 5-50 yards
b. Acceleration and maximal speed runs
c. Full recoveries
• 1 min. per 10 yds

3. Medball Throws

a. Maximal intent throws
b. 3-5 reps per side
c. Full rests intervals
d. Movement patterns
• Rotational
• Linear forward/backward
• Specific

4. Jump Training

a. 1-5 reps
b. Maximal intent
c. Full rest intervals
d. Variety of movements available
• Double leg
• Single leg
• Alternating






Anaerobic Lactic System

The anaerobic lactic system is the second part of the anaerobic system. It is also known as the lactic or glycolytic energy system. This system is responsible for energy production following the slowdown of the alactic system at around 12 seconds. It produces ATP faster than the aerobic system, but again, comes at the cost of its duration and by-products.

I’ve seen graphs that state baseball is 80% alactic, 15% anaerobic-glycolytic, and 5% oxidative. This is ridiculous. The lactic system has nowhere near a 15% contribution for baseball athletes.

The lactic system rarely, if ever, gets used on the baseball field, says @ZachDechant. Share on X

The lactic system rarely, if ever, gets used on a baseball field. Plays on a baseball field rarely exceed 10 seconds and when they do, athletes get more than enough rest to return to the alactic system. Yes, there are exceptions to every case, but it is rare (if ever) that the lactic system would play a role in a baseball athlete’s training.

I often think of the lactic system as the middle ground that so many “conditioning drills” get built around. The middle ground refers to intensity and rest intervals. Intensities are in the 75-95% range with rests that don’t fully restore an athlete. Intensities over 75% stimulate the nervous system and therefore cannot be classified as recovery or restoration, yet aren’t fast enough to stimulate alactic power or true speed training.

The 300-yard shuttle is a staple for professional baseball organizations in spring training. Rest intervals are incomplete and do not allow for full short-term restoration. They are often classified as a 1:3 work-to-rest ratio, which, as we know from above, is nowhere close to the game of baseball. A 60-second, 300-yard shuttle is commonly given three-minute rest intervals before repeating. And these become tough runs made with large buildups of lactate.

The lactic system makes up much more than its fair share of “baseball conditioning.” If you’re running sprints or drills that last over 10 seconds with incomplete recoveries, then you’re training the lactic system. Not only is this training not specific to the demands of the sport, but it can actually hamper the development of the aerobic system and the ability of the body to recover.





All this means no bow-and-arrow sprints, no ladder poles, no 300-yard shuttles. Those may have their purpose at one time or another, but continually conditioning baseball athletes with this type of running has no purpose.

Parting Thoughts

Conditioning a pitcher to throw 90+ pitches is not all that energy-system-dependent, as many believe. The real conditioning is skill-specific. The ability to throw 90 pitches in a game doesn’t come from road work and miles on the legs. It comes from building throwing workloads gradually and the ability of the body to handle those workloads. We can take anybody who is in shape and it won’t mean they can throw 90 pitches in a game.

On the flip side, you see many out-of-shape guys who can still dominate on the mound. Conditioning is general and doesn’t aid that aspect. Any talk of baseball and energy systems should basically start and stop with alactic development. Are there benefits that can be derived from the other energy systems? Yes, but in the grand scheme of things, the benefits derived from other energy systems are small and often secondary training effects.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF





References

Cornell, David J., et al. “In-Game Heart Rate Responses Among Professional Baseball Starting Pitchers.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2017; 31(1): 24-29.  doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001465.

Haff, Greg, and N. Travis Triplett. “Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.” Human Kinetics, 2016.

James, D.V., Munson, S.C., Maldonado-Martin, S. and De Ste Croix, M.B. “Heart rate variability: effect of exercise intensity on postexercise response.” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2012; 83(4): 533-9.

Before reading this article, I want you to close your eyes, sit still, and relax. I want you to imagine the most amazing high-performance sport program you can. Conjure up imagery of every detail and every aspect. With your eyes closed, take your time looking around—what do you see?

Labs? Testing? Grandiose facilities?

Make a list. Think, also, about some of the common phrases and slogans you’ve heard:

• At our High-Performance Summer Camp, we strive to help athletes reach their true potential
• Our High-Performance Program is the best in the country!
• Join our High-Performance Team and apply now
• Cutting edge programs
• Ground-breaking methods

Is high performance a spacious training environment with shiny new equipment? Does it include a coaching staff wearing matching Polo shirts, all moving about the facility to collect data using sophisticated computer tech? Is it about extensive laboratory testing or predictions of Olympic medals?

Or, is high-performance something else?

What Exactly Is High Performance?

If I were to ask you to define the term, could you? Is it even a definable and measurable construct? Is it something we can all picture and agree on?

Now, imagine you’re an athlete or a new practitioner seeking to be part of a high-performance program. Would you know what to look for? Would you be aware of the common denominators shared between all high-performance programs? And would you be able to identify what is missing?

My point is, the world of high-performance programs and high-performance sport are not clearly defined. Meaning we have no current checklist that neatly outlines what a high-performance program is (or is not); however, it seems everyone is offering this type of service.

Since the term itself is unclear, I decided to pretend I was a prospective athlete looking for a high-performance program using nothing but a handy internet search engine. During my non-scholarly Google crusade, I came across several definitions of high performance:

“High-performance sport or elite sport is sport at the highest level of competition… where the emphasis is on winning prestigious competitions” (Wikipedia, 2019).

High-performance sport overlaps with professional sport but is not the same; for example, the English football league system and Minor League Baseball include lower divisions whose teams’ members are full-time professionals. On the other hand, elite competitors at the Olympic Games or World Games in some minority sports may be part-time or rely on government grants. Likewise, student athletes, especially in college sports, are often high performance despite being amateurs (Wikipedia, 2019).

Clear as mud right? Okay, googling further:

In high-performance sport, “Administratively, National governing bodies for a particular sport often have separate administrative units for supporting elite athletes and for administering mass competitions. National Olympic Committees are often concerned with the funding of athletes likely to win Olympic medals. National Training Centers and Sports academies have also popped up with the goal of developing and nurturing promising young athletes. Such institutes may set goals in terms of national ranking on the Olympic medal table” (Wikipedia, 2019).

Thanks, Wikipedia, but this does little to help the prospective athlete or budding practitioner—or anyone else for that matter—seek and ultimately find a high-performance program to help them reach their respective goals. Perhaps many people think that the realms of high-performance sport are untouchable and reserved for only the very elite (whatever that means) and that it requires a state-of-the-art facility and a testing laboratory to do any real, valuable work.

High-performance programs are about the attitude of people running it & their drive to do what's necessary to develop the athletes, says @carmenbott. Share on X

In reality, high-performance programs are about culture. And culture is more about the attitude of people working for the athletes and the drive they demonstrate to do what is necessary to foster the athlete’s development. Notice I did not use the adjective elite. Since there is no current definition of a high-performance program that offers a “bells and whistles” insight, I’ll take a stab at honing in on the level of professionalism, service, and drive necessary to live up to that title. As an athlete or a practitioner, these are the qualities you should shop for.

I want to share this insight with athletes, their parents, and potential practitioners looking to join a high-performance team of professionals. Having coached in several different environments that were all deemed high-performance, I found some environments were much better than others. And from this lens, I’d like to share my view on the key targets of a high-performance culture that all high-performance sport programs should embody.

Target 1: Consistency

High-performance culture must be about the consistency of service delivery. Every single day, each staff member must show up with the same level of vigor, drive, and patience they did the day before. A staff that can perform and deliver—no matter the circumstances—sets a level of modeling for the athlete that is imperative. Energy and focus must not fluctuate.

Target 2: Growth Mindset

A high-performance culture is about a growth mindset. We can improve every day. Complacency and procrastination have no place in a high-performance environment. High-performance team members must admit their knowledge gaps and demonstrate their resourcefulness by doing daily research for the betterment of their professional development. It might involve looking up an answer to a question, seeking a new drill to improve a motor skill or a consulting with another professional. Get better every day.

Target 3: Calculated Risk-Taking

A high-performance culture is about calculated risk-taking. Sometimes a risk needs to be taken. Meaning, there is going to be doubt about a training method, or a taper, or even a training schedule. We cannot predict every outcome, and sometimes we are faced with uncertain circumstances. These are times to be brave. And to put the eggs in one basket and confidently face the storm. At worst, we’ll learn from our errors. We instill this in our athletes, do we not? Well, again we must practice what we preach. This does not mean we are whimsical or emotional in our decision-making; it means sometimes we risk a negative outcome. And such is life.

Target 4: Collaboration

A high-performance culture is about collaboration. Barriers to this often include fear and ego. If you approach another professional and express an opinion and they are not open to discussion, don’t take it personally and don’t bother “going in the ditch.” Not everyone is ready for you and new ideas. You need to know this and instead seek those who are not afraid of debate. Debate and collaboration are the same in my mind. We can disagree and approach problems very differently from one another but still arrive at a similar end point.

Collaboration means we can disagree & approach problems very differently from one another & still arrive at a similar end point, says @carmenbott. Share on X

True collaboration is about knowing the strengths of those around you and putting your ego aside when you need to ask for help. Collaboration, though, works best when two or more individuals have a similar value system and work ethic. If you find people just want to milk you for your knowledge, find a new colleague. That’s not reciprocity, and it’s not about the athlete.

Target 5: Frequent Communication

A high-performance culture is about frequent communication with athletes. Very little is new in sport science in terms of training methodology. However, we can be innovative about how we deliver programming. With so many accessible platforms for high performance athletes, it’s easier and faster to communicate than ever before.

Besides the face-to-face communication during training sessions, it’s important to touch base with athletes regularly and ask for their feedback: text, instant message, phone, or video chat. Athlete feedback should be the basis of our decision-making, and we won’t know how athletes are feeling or experiencing the training until we ask. Having a close relationship with high performance athletes is not unprofessional. Trust must be built, and it’s through open channels of communication where we can be foster it even further.

Target 6: Aligning Core Values

A high-performance culture is about aligning core values. In the world of sport, the performance team is large with many moving parts: sports medicine, physiology, psychology, statistics and analytics, strength and conditioning, the board, coaching staff, and more—and at the center of it all is the athlete. Each team member must be aligned in core values, and this needs to be clearly defined and communicated from the outset.

Each performance team member must be aligned in core values, which need to be clearly defined and communicated from the outset, says @carmenbott. Share on X

I’ll take this further and suggest a written document of standard operating procedures, a code of professional conduct, and a communication stream. Each member must be selfless and in it for the athlete’s benefit, not for their glory. Having said that, all team members should be recognized and appreciated for their work; praise and acknowledgment are important.

Target 7: Basis in Science

High-performance culture revolves around science and the scientific method. All team members must make choices based on what the body of evidence suggests as best practice. A high-performance program is not about the latest fitness trend or nutritional supplement. It’s also not about the general population. Athletes are special, and we must make informed choices for them based on scientific evidence. It’s okay to be cutting edge and innovative, but the evidence still must be founded upon rigor. Meaning, science that applies to an untrained soccer mom does not mesh well with an NFL superstar. Not. The. Same.

Target 8: Modeling

A high-performance culture is about modeling. Each team member must be living and breathing excellence. I am not saying perfection, but it’s important that we show our athletes that we, too, are executing a high-performance lifestyle. We’re eating well. We’re sleeping well. We’re communicating well. We’re engaging in self-care. We’re not allowing ourselves to burn out. We are healthy, fit, and strong, and have a relentless appetite for good hard work. Plus, we are fun to be around!

Without a foundation of high-performance culture and solid teamwork of caring individuals, the extras lack significance, says @carmenbott. Share on X

High performance sport is not about anything tangible, is it? It’s about the culture of a team, agency, or organization made up of amazing humans who, on a daily basis, are role models for athletes and who place the athlete at the center of all their decision-making. The shiny hubcaps are the fancy facilities and world-class laboratories. Without a foundation of high-performance culture and solid teamwork of caring individuals, the extras lack significance.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Late last year, we learned that the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was considering including esports—competitive computer gaming—at the 2024 Olympic Games in Paris. This news was generally met with derision from the sporting community, which advocates that sports should include some form of physical performance.

Philosophical questions aside, the Olympics need to remain relevant as time progresses, keeping the next generation interested in the whole movement and ensuring advertisers have a worthwhile market to justify their sponsorship outlays. It’s not only the IOC that’s exploring the use of computer games. Manchester City, for example, recently announced an esport-specific sponsorship partnership, viewing esports as a crucial way to break into the Chinese football market.

Beyond esport competitions, emerging evidence suggests that computer games along with virtual reality (VR) have the potential to revolutionize more traditional sports. For example, a common issue with sports training is managing physical load. We generally understand that too much load leads to undue fatigue and increases the risk of injury. As such, coaches have to limit their athletes’ exposure to physical stress. Computer simulation-based training can completely remove, or at least reduce, the physical component of training, allowing for more total training to occur and, ideally, larger improvement.

Performance training with #virtualreality can reduce physical load, allow for more total training, & improve tactical skills, says @craig100m. Share on X

A second issue for sport coaches is their ability to produce realistic training environments. As much as they try, it can be hard to replicate the heat of competition. This is especially true for tactical training. If you’re setting up your team to carry out a specific action to reduce the effectiveness of an opposition player—and you don’t have the specific opposition player to practice against—it can be tough to understand if your intervention will be effective.

Building on this latter point, a number of NFL teams have shown interest in VR-based training for their quarterbacks—perhaps most famously in the case of Tom Brady. In theory, VR-based training allows the quarterback to become immersed in the game, spotting their receivers in the pattern and picking the ideal pass in their progression while avoiding defensive players. This adds to the hours of game footage the players watch to hopefully provide additional realism above that of the game tape.

How Effective Are Computer Games and Virtual Reality in Enhancing Performance?

There are a few studies in this area, all of which suggest computer technology has potential. A 2009 study, for example, randomized 32 university students to undertake bowling training on a Nintendo Wii or no training at all before a bowling skill test. The researchers found that those who trained on the Wii had better bowling performance.

A more recent 2019 table tennis study found similar results. Here, subjects underwent a table tennis assessment and then were randomized to receive either six VR table tennis training sessions or no training at all before undertaking a second table tennis assessment. Again, the VR training group showed significantly greater improvements in real-world table tennis performance compared to the control group. Comparable results for darts throwing have also been reported.

There are still plenty of questions in this area that require resolution. First, we need to understand better how computer games and VR might sit alongside physical training. In both the table tennis and bowling studies, the subjects either undertook VR training or no training at all.

But what happens if the control group undertook actual table tennis training, as opposed to doing nothing? We’d assume that they would show greater improvements. But we should also consider how this would work throughout a 3-month training program, especially with training load and injury risk. Might we expect that strategic computer games and VR sessions in replacement of, or in addition to, more standard physical training sessions would lead to greater performance enhancement? Time will (hopefully) tell.

There is plenty of evidence suggesting that computer-based and VR training potentially can enhance sports vision—the ability to detect relevant stimuli and execute the correct skill in a given match context. It’s not yet entirely clear, however, how well they’ll transfer to real world performance.

Fortunately, a 2017 study by Rob Gray gives us some initial insights as to whether training carried out in a virtual environment transfers to the real world. Here, Gray randomly assigned 80 experienced, male baseball players to one of four groups:

• A virtual environment group that faced 30 virtual pitches
• A real-world group that faced 30 real pitches
• An adaptive virtual environment group which faced 30 pitches varied according to an athlete’s skill level
• A control group

The training groups undertook two 45-minute sessions per week for six weeks. All sessions were in addition to regular training sessions. Overall, the adaptive virtual environment group showed the greatest improvements in batting performance. That this group outperformed the athletes who underwent real-world batting training suggests that there’s sufficient transfer from VR training to real-world performance, at least for baseball.

High school baseball players who underwent #virtualreality batting training performed better than those who had real-world training, says @craig100m. Share on X

Interestingly, these subjects were high-school baseball players. In general, around 0.5% of high schoolers are drafted into the MLB; in the five-year period after this study was completed, 10% of the adaptive virtual environment group were drafted, which suggests that this type of training may drive longer-term changes—which is clearly very promising.

Implications for High Performance Athletes

As identified in a recent review, the majority of these studies use beginners as opposed to advanced athletes. This could skew results because beginners generally require less work to improve. They also tend to show improvements from a variety of different interventions, regardless of the general efficacy of a specific intervention. As such, we clearly need more research on high-level athletes, a group in which improvements tend to be difficult and hard-won. If computer game and VR training enhance performance in this group, then they’re likely here to stay.

Visual and Perception Training

An area in athletics where VR may be useful involves my own training history. I’ve written before about how I was responsible for the Great Britain 4x100m relay team’s disqualification at the 2008 Olympic Games, which was somewhat of a career-defining experience for me. I had trouble seeing the checkmark in relation to the incoming runner, and this, combined with the high-pressure environment and my inexperience in running 4^thleg, caused me to leave early.

In the three weeks before the Olympics, I took part in five relay training sessions with about 20 changeovers and three different incoming runners. This meant that, heading into the Olympic Games, I only had 8-10 changeovers practiced with the guy handing the baton to me, none of which occurred in a race situation.

It’s clear how VR could have assisted. By wearing a headset, I would have trained my visual-perceptive system to better spot the checkmark and the incoming runner. I could modify the size of the checkmark, making it smaller to test my abilities. I could vary the speed of the incoming runner. I could alter what he was wearing. I could have eight avatars of the same incoming runner in different lanes, making it harder for me to spot the right one. I could change the weather, making it sunny or wet, which affects how easy it is to spot the checkmark. And, crucially, I could have practiced this daily with no physical strain in addition to the physical changeovers I practiced in the real, physical world. VR would have augmented my improvements and, perhaps, helped avoid my costly mistake.

There is a huge amount of potential here. By reducing the physical training load, it may be possible to increase the total training volumes undertaken by athletes, allowing them to enhance their cognitive, visual-perceptive, and skill-based performance. This is good in the sense that practice makes perfect. As with physical performance, however, this aspect will need to be monitored to avoid burnout.

Return-to-Play

Another potential area is the return-to-play of a previously injured athlete. Typically, athletes who have undergone an extended absence from their sport due to injury return a bit rusty. By using computer games and VR, it may be possible to maintain and even enhance their psychological skills during injury, enabling them to slot back into the team once they return to full fitness. Return-to-play is an area of huge promise and, as the prices of these technologies drop and validation increases, it’s likely to become more common in teams across a variety of sports.

Concluding Thoughts

There are still many aspects surrounding these technologies that we don’t fully understand in a sport setting, and many more typical brain training games have little evidence supporting their use within sports. Accordingly, we need a far greater body of research before these technologies become mainstream. At present, they represent an interesting glimpse into the future of performance.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

As a high school coach, I am responsible for the development of a sizeable group of athletes each and every season. I have written before about my belief that athletes need to first become better movers in general.

I love keeping it simple in the weight room. Nothing makes me happier than a good-looking squat or deadlift, but chasing numbers in the weight room is not something that I care to do. I know that an athlete adding strength slowly with an emphasis on technique is the best choice. Strength is a skill that needs to be developed.

I tell my athletes that running fast should look effortless because there is nothing beyond top speed except coordination erosion, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

Coaches often give cues such as “project your hips” or “stay tall.” These are good cues, to be sure, but they assume that athletes understand the movements and the feel behind what we are trying to say. There are plenty of simple options with large groups that allow athletes to develop general motor skills and feel full ranges of motion while under control. I don’t always have the time to write a specific program for each kid, so on circuit days or in warm-ups I choose items that will allow me to enhance the main workout, depending on the need. Most of our athletes have a low training age, so I believe improving general qualities will absolutely enhance the specific tasks.

Classifying the Routines and Movement Patterns

Sprinting is a complex activity that is dependent on many other things. To improve the act of sprinting, I believe you can attack it through certain exercises that break sprinting into its components: posture, hip/trunk control, and ankle stiffness. Working on the individual parts in conjunction with quality sprint training can strengthen the whole, especially with developmental athletes.

Posture

“When posture is correct, movement of the limbs is often correct.” –Mike Young

This fact drives most of our training. An athlete who displays correct posture will appear to be more fluid. Correct posture in speed work, as I view it, starts with the head.

I look for a relaxed head and neck with no tension. I want my athletes’ eyes looking out ahead. Trust me, trying to convince them not to turn their head and check out the competition in the middle of the race is often a challenge by itself. I have athletes who bobble their heads left and right, and up and down. I need to devote time in practice to working on this so that I get more quality reps in practice. To get better at calculus, a math student needs to do calculus, but hopefully they have also taken a few algebra classes along the way and know their math facts.

Sprinters should display a stacked vertical posture: neutral neck and head, hips up and forward with a slight posterior pelvic tilt. Doing this will allow for better front-side mechanics. It will become easier to run fast. I tell my athletes that running fast should look effortless because there is nothing beyond top speed except coordination erosion.

Better force application through better posture is the best way to lengthen stride, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

Sometimes wickets are used as a means to artificially increase stride length. I think communicating in this way leads to overstriding and an increase in braking forces. Better force application through better posture is the best way to lengthen stride. Because of better force application on the ground, which allows more time to properly position limbs for ground contact, there is less braking force. It all starts with correct posture. No matter what the athletes are doing in practice, they should understand this.

Hip/Trunk Control

Hips are commonly cued or referred to in certain drills. As mentioned earlier, a common cue during the wicket drills or block starts is for the athletes to project their hips. My athletes have poor hip control, as do lots of high school athletes. The important thing to know is that even though we want stable posture, there is still rotation present. This is normal, but I never want to see over rotation that lacks fluidity.

One of the best examples of this is Usain Bolt. He is able to control the rotation of his hips and use it to explode powerfully forward. This is an advanced athlete who has years of experience and movement on his side. My athletes need time to explore and acquire these skills in simple fashions.

I need my athletes to be able to do these three starting skills:

1. Move between anterior and posterior pelvic tilt with control.
2. Disassociate their pelvis from their trunk (or vice versa).
3. Disassociate their hips with good posture (one side in flexion, one in extension).

The definition of disassociation is “the disconnection or separation of something from something else.” Hip disassociation means being able to move the hip in its socket without compensating elsewhere—hip mobility.

It sounds like a huge undertaking, but I try to keep it as basic as possible to avoid it becoming time-consuming. As I have written previously, sharpening the tools that I already have is the best bet. The athletes will get better at the exercises and I will get better at pointing out certain things because I see them and use them so often.

Ankle Stiffness

When posture is correct, lower limb stiffness will increase naturally because there is more time to be properly positioned to absorb the force. I have always considered that although posture improves ankle stiffness, directly working on ankle stiffness can also improve ankle stiffness.

In sprinting, lower limb stiffness is a good thing. Dynamic Achilles and calf work increase elasticity and allow for better force absorption and production. This results in less ground contact time and higher vertical displacement, which leads to better foot strike positions closer to center of mass. This goes hand in hand with the aforementioned importance of posture.

Although posture improves ankle stiffness, directly working on ankle stiffness can also improve ankle stiffness, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

These exercises also highlight the importance of dorsiflexion and proper strike with the ball of the foot. The athlete can be made to actively feel the sensation of good foot strike and stiffness. Feeling this can enhance more specific work like block starts, fly work, and wicket runs.

The Exercises

Here are some exercises that I use to address the aforementioned movement patterns. Some are fun, some are specific, and some are a little strange. I am always playing around with different variations of exercises to add a different dimension or new challenge to the movements. I want my athletes to become more athletic and to move more fluidly while never straying too far from the basics.

Jumping Jack Variation (Front Jacks) – Posture Focus

I like this basic exercise because it is a fun and easy way to get the day started by working on a posture-specific exercise. Front jacks are done like traditional jumping jacks, but the arms abduct/adduct opposite to the legs in the sagittal plane rather than the frontal. This adds a bit of chaos to the timing and rhythm of their movement. Timing and rhythm benefit all sprinters and athletes.

I ask my athletes to keep a relaxed head/neck and start with hips up and forward. I love drills like “prime times,” but the athletes I work with tend to want to lean back too far and display incorrect posture with too much posterior tilt and feet cast out from their center of mass.

This sagittal jumping jack variation serves as a great reference point for rhythm and appropriate positioning with more specific items. Once they have had some repetitions of this drill, I often add a rotational component to the exercise. Can the athletes still rotate with good timing, symmetry, and rhythm? I prefer for them to return the arms to the thigh as a cue to not push their hips too far forward and disturb their neutral pelvic position.

Video 1. What may be a great warm-up for some athletes is a great coordination drill for others. Jumping jack variations are timeless and very safe on the joints.

Jumping Jack Variation (Scissor Jacks) – Hip Disassociation

This is another simple variation of the traditional jumping jack. I can easily demonstrate these with a group of 30-40 athletes and they can be done anywhere. They keep things light and fun as well. In addition to correct posture, scissor jacks also give meaning to vague cues such as “isolate the hip.”

This exercise calls upon athletes to move in the sagittal plane between hip flexion and extension, keeping the hips hiked while not disturbing the neutral pelvic position. The arms retain the frontal plane movement of the traditional jumping jack with a clap overhead as a cue to “stay tall.” Again, throughout the whole movement I want the athletes to exhibit control and rhythm. I have also done rotational scissor jacks with my athletes to provide an additional challenge.

Video 2. The scissor variation provides another option for coaches who want change but still challenge coordination. Focus on sharp stiffness and not on time or volume when implementing this drill. 

Figure 4 Glute Bridge – Hip Flexion and Extension

There are a ton of great drills out there to teach this. We have used hip thrusts in the weight room, and I think there is a great benefit to doing these with sprinters. We have to get to that point first. This allows me to teach movement patterns commonly seen in the weight room and on the track to large groups of athletes at different levels.

This basic movement is great to teach hip extension unilaterally. One leg in the sprint cycle will be in hip extension at toe off and at max vertical displacement. Squats and deadlifts also require extension of the hips. As Tobey and Mike explain in “Single-Leg Glute Bridge”: “Strength and stability in the core of the body…provides an optimal platform through which distal limbs can function… As such, muscle strength and power of the hips and pelvis are critical components of the overall impact of both resistance training and athletic performance in a multitude of sports.”  The glute bridge puts this all together.

I look for the athlete to start lying down with one knee up, with their other leg crossed over in an externally rotated hip flexor stretch. I usually like the heel to rest right above the knee. The leg on the ground should have the heel driven into the ground with the toes up, and the arms should be anchored to the floor, palms down. With the glute, they should extend their hips with control until their pelvis is neutral. After a short pause, they should return to the floor and repeat for the desired number of reps.

Once exposed to this movement, athletes could progress to a single leg hip thrust with shoulder blades on a bench with the chin tucked and then, finally, barbell hip thrusts.

Video 3. A simple glute bridge is a great way to bring awareness to an athlete. You can add this exercise to warm-ups or recovery days.

Cat/Camel – Lumbopelvic Dissociation

This is a great exercise to help reduce stiffness in the body, strengthen the core, and free up the limbs for good movement. As someone who has had a slew of nagging back issues, I myself have gotten great benefits from doing this simple exercise.

The goal of cat/camel is to move seamlessly with control between anterior and posterior pelvic tilt, as well as display good spinal flexion and extension to improve thoracic mobility. This is also used as a point of reference when cueing good posture. “Remember the cat and camel drill that we did? Yeah. Stay tall, right between those positions.”

Do your athletes understand how to move their pelvis independently of their femurs and back? Coupled with the t-spine mobility in the movement, these are things that also help with squat mobility and reducing compensation patterns such as the “butt-wink.”

For simplicity, I like to have athletes start on all fours in a quadruped position.

• The athlete keeps their hands under their shoulders and their knees under their hips. They should have a partner place a hand on their lower back and watch their femurs.
• Without changing the position of their femurs, they should arch their lower back into their partner’s hand (spinal flexion). Be sure they move slowly through the movement, including the lumbar and thoracic spine, and maintain a good breathing rate.
• Pause and hold here and then extend the pelvis towards the floor and allow the femurs to still retain their original position.

Video 4. While many coaches are familiar with the cat and camel yoga asana, it’s perfect for sprinters and jumpers to learn motor control. The spine and hips are important to speed athletes, and this exercise does more than mobilize the spine.

Pelvic/Trunk Dissociation Drills

These are used to control motion of rotation and strengthen core muscles with better lumbar-pelvic rhythm. Sprinting has some rotation. Trunk stability doesn’t mean rigidity. I need athletes to be able to separate their hips from their trunk to better learn to control movement at max velocity.

I need athletes to be able to separate their hips from their trunk to better learn to control movement at max velocity, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

Slower runners can often appear stiff and tight when sprinting, which makes them unable to “load to explode.” I see this most often when I do lower-intensity hurdle top/board accelerations/runs with my athletes. The hurdle top is held across their back and it is visibly obvious to the coach when over rotation is occurring because of faulty backside mechanics and lack of trunk control/strength.

I believe most of my athletes can benefit from working on pelvic and trunk control.

The first exercise is more of a diagnostic tool, although it could certainly be done for reps.

They hold a PVC or a light bar across their shoulders with their arms folded over in slight hip hinge position. Without moving the bar from its parallel position to their body, I want to see if they can isolate their hips from the belt and swivel about, left to right, in a controlled manner. If they can’t do it without turning their shoulders, I may have a partner hold their shoulders stable. If they can do it now, this lets me see whether it is a stability issue (trunk strength) or a mobility issue.

When it comes to sports like basketball, football, and soccer, I think this is an important skill. To exhibit optimal trunk rotation in sprinting, I think athletes need to explore and improve their own movement with control. I never cue this, but I try to put them in positions to do it naturally. Sometimes telling them too much causes overthinking.

Video 5. Twisting is about rotation while keeping the pelvis under you, so adding this drill is great for teaching an athlete how to control their upper and lower torso. Because of its low stress demand to the body, you can place this drill anywhere in a program.

From here, I prescribe a similar exercise, except they can plant the bar into the ground and use it to go through controlled ranges of motion with their hip swivel again. They should breathe properly and focus on moving with control. These are great for not only control, but trunk strength as well. They should feel a deep burn while doing this.

Video 6. Teaching relaxation of the spine is important for athletes, including sprinters and jumpers. The bar adds a relaxation element to the movement equation.

The last drill is the pelvic dissociation dance. I have athletes stand on a line to make sure that the only movement that occurs is from the hips and below. They can rapidly swivel and switch between the left and right side while keeping the trunk stabilized and not rotating.

Video 7. Dance is an activity that promotes control and fluid movement. Adding motions outside an athlete’s comfort zone expands their horizons with coordination.

Ankle Rocker Squat – Ankle Stiffness

Ankle rockers are great in warm-up routines, as are ankle rocker jumps. I recently used the ankle rocker squat. Ankle rocker is the position of the foot/ankle when going from stance to toe off. Chris Korfist says, “That movement is the ability of the ankle or body to get the center of mass through the midstance phase and create forward movement.”

Ankle rocker squats are done the same way as ankle rocker jumps. I have athletes use a body bar with the opposite-side arm for balance since the exercise is so challenging. I have them move the knee over the foot first without changing their hip position (in between big toe and second toe), then get the hips into position by hinging. I look for the torso to be at about the same angle as the shin. From here, they drive through their big toe into a calf raise with control while extending their hip. This is similar to the propulsive action of toe off during sprinting. This attacks not just their ankle mobility, but also their strength at this range of motion.

Video 8. Single leg ankle rocker squats are excellent for maintaining ankle mobility and for teaching a solid co-contraction of the hips and knee. Use the bar to help add balance so the athlete can focus on pushing down and up.

Wall Drill Foot Pop – Ankle Stiffness 

The wall drill foot pop is more a tool for teaching footstrike, a rigid ankle, and to not cast out to apply better force (squash the bug). This is a motor skill with a sprint-specific focus. It has almost the same setup as regular fence/wall drill, but they start flat-footed and with a more vertical posture. Athletes should drive the ankle down, striking with the ball of the foot, and they should feel themselves pop upwards. This is an elastic response similar to the stretch shortening cycle of sprinting that results in vertical force and good vertical displacement. This allows an athlete to see that striking the ground in proper position close to their center of mass is a beneficial thing for them.

I sometimes have them purposely do the same exercise with the foot out from them (cast out) to see if they get the same “pop” (they don’t). I want them to avoid this habit of casting out and, more than that, understand the negative effects that this action has. The next time we do wickets and they try to artificially lengthen their stride rather than “projecting over with the hips, and driving down with their foot,” the wall pop becomes another great reference point.

Video 9. Ankle pops won’t transform an average athlete into a power dunker, but they’re great for working plantar flexion and posture. Again, this exercise isn’t a plyometric activity, but it’s a good preparatory movement.

Single Leg Stair Drop

This is another thing stolen from Chris Korfist. The single leg stair drop is a great way to teach absorbing force with the correct part of the foot. I usually don’t have athletes start too high up on the stairs, for obvious reasons. They start by grabbing the railing with their inside hand and hop with the opposite leg. I find hopping backwards keeps the hip loaded more, rather than the knee loaded when hopping forward. It also allows them to land dorsiflexed.

I have never done forward drops because there would be too much reaching/plantar flexing causing braking forces. I want to avoid this. Once again, the hips are cued to be up and forward. When they drop, athletes should make an effort to minimize collapse and stay stacked in their posture. My more-seasoned athletes can string together most of the stairs without much of a pause. Newer athletes usually have a pause between. The truth is, I don’t think it matters. It is a great drill that drives home an important concept.

Video 10. Landing is a skill that you should learn first before rushing to higher heights. Just low amplitude works well for youth athletes, and the training effect is enough to make a difference in performance.

Programming the Drills

Correct posture, hip control, and lower limb stiffness are key pieces in becoming a better sprinter. Sprinting is comprised of all of these things at once in a delicate balance. The challenge then becomes sorting out where we insert these items without overtraining.

Correct posture, hip control, and lower limb stiffness are key pieces in becoming a better #sprinter, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

I use an x-factor circuit one time a week to program many of these items. The stations are centered around feet/ankles, hips/pelvis, core/trunk, and a lower-intensity plyometric such as a landing drill. I don’t want this day to be another thing to recover from. It serves as a low-intensity remediation day to reinforce key concepts that I will not always be able to get to.

An x-factor day might look like this in the early part of the season:

1. 3×5 ankle rocker squats each leg or 3×5 stair drops each leg (ankle stiffness)
2. 3×8 cat/camel (lumbopelvic disassociation) or pelvic disassociation dance 3×10 each side
3. Jumping jack variations (posture and hip disassociation)
4. 3×5 each leg figure 4 glute/bridge with 2-second pause (core/hips/glutes)
5. 3×5 landing drill snapdown from a 10” stair/step (low-level plyometric)

The athletes rotate through the stations. This is pretty much the layout for the season. On a deload week, the x-factor day may just be playing a game such as “medball volleyball.”

The low reps and focus on movement enable me to set up the rest of the season. If the movements are stale or “mastered,” I may swap them out for something along the same lines and purpose, but with a bit more of a challenge. This doesn’t mean I do away with them completely. Often, they are just moved to the warm-up.

On days when we sprint or accelerate, some form of hamstring, glute, hips, and trunk exercises are included. It depends on what I want to see out of my athletes. Some drills, like the wall drill foot pop, I do early in the season right before doing wicket drills. It makes sense to put it there for me, but it might not for you.

Always Changing

The truth is, I don’t know which of these pieces I will keep from season to season. I experiment with the simplest movements that reach the most athletes at once. Consideration of the following questions always help me program exercises:

• Can I do it myself and describe it effectively to the athletes so they can see and feel it?
• Do I have space, time, equipment, etc. to do this?
• Is there value in this drill/exercise to support sprinting?
• Is it safe and something that benefits athletes in the long term?

I experiment with the simplest movements that reach the most athletes at once, says @grahamsprints. Share on X

I want everything I do to be easily achievable and understood by the athletes, and to support the segmented pieces of sprinting. I try to be innovative when possible and ask questions about how to improve a certain movement and where to put it to make the most sense.

• Can I add a band to this? Do I need to?
• Is higher better or harmful for this athlete?
• What does adding weight accomplish?
• Is this a maximum velocity or acceleration tool?
• Well, this is getting stale. How do I make it seem new without compromising quality? What new dimension can I add?

These inner dialogues have made me rethink and solidify my stance on certain things. Think about what works for your athletes, as well as what skills they need in the weight room and on the track. Most importantly, make sensible progressions and never over-complicate things.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Jump squats have always had a place in performance training. That’s because the exercise is a variation of the popular and effective back squat. A jump squat consists of performing a traditional squat while moving at a high enough speed to leave the ground and jump in the air. Intuitively, it’s an effective performance training exercise because the movement is explosive and ballistic. What makes the jump squat even more appealing is that we can teach and learn it at the same time as the traditional squat, so it’s a two-for-one deal.

With the challenges that come from teaching and learning Olympic lifts, jump squats would seem to be a particularly good alternative because of their simplicity and effectiveness. The exercise does, however, have limitations and shortcomings that curb its training effects. Consequently, rather than being a core lift, it’s considered a supplemental one.

I’m going to discuss first what limits the jump squat from being a staple, go-to movement for performance training. Then, I’ll talk about how the limitations have been overcome so we can look at the jump squat as a staple movement when developing power, explosiveness, and speed.

Two Limitations of Traditional Jump Squats

1. High Impact Ground Forces

I was introduced to the jump squat in 1996 during my sophomore year of high school, which also happened to be the year I had the greatest strength gains in my life (on a per year basis). Beginning the previous year as a freshman, I had maxed out at 135 lbs. on the bench and power cleans and squatted 200 lbs.

By the end of my freshman year and the beginning of my sophomore year, I had increased my one rep maxes for the bench press and power clean to 240 lbs. and squatted 350 lbs. That was an incremental increase of 77% on the bench and power cleans and 75% on squats in a matter of a year. My incremental strength increases then started to slow down drastically following that initial burst—to say the least—which is normal.

During this period, even though my strength levels had skyrocketed, it was not until we started doing jump squats as part of our lower body regimen that I experienced a significant increase in my explosiveness, speed, and jumping ability. Unfortunately, those results were short-lived. After doing jump squats for about a week, the landing forces blew out my hamstring to the point to where it came off the bone. It was a serious injury, and I had to deal with the repercussions for years afterward. It also discouraged me from ever wanting to do jump squats again.

It makes sense that when you increase the amount of ground impact forces an athlete has to absorb, the risk of injury also increases. The nature of playing any sport means there’s going to be an inherent amount of impact and wear and tear the body will have to withstand. And high impact situations occur in any sport.

Theoretically, reducing the wear and tear or the ground impact forces in training will reduce the risk of injury. That’s because a lot of injuries are caused by the accumulation of the heavy workloads performed during training and competition.

As I learned the hard way, traditional jump squats put the body through enough substantial ground impact forces that they can lead to injury. Landing with the load on the lifter’s back sends the forces of the falling bar through the body’s center mass. One small breakdown in landing technique could cause a serious injury, as in my case. But even with the soundest landing technique, the increase in the volume of ground impact forces puts any athlete who performs the traditional jump squat at a higher risk of injury.

2. The Inability to Effectively Train a Balanced Mix of Speed and Strength Simultaneously

In studies that measure a jump squat’s power production, there is a very consistent trend. When the load exceeds about 30% of your one rep max, the power output starts to decrease (see Figure 1 below). Contrast that with Olympic lifts and their derivatives, where you can continue to increase power output up to about 70 to 75% of the one rep max. This means traditional jump squats (having to land with the loaded bar) are nowhere near as effective as training peak power output with heavy loads.

This limitation is a big reason why jump squats aren’t used as a staple lift in performance training; they don’t effectively train a balanced mixture of speed and strength, which comes from training power with heavier loads. This reduces the ability to develop functional power that translates to competition: when jump squatting with lighter loads, there isn’t enough strength training, and when jump squats are performed with heavier loads, there isn’t enough speed training.

In theory, mixing lighter jump squats with the heavier ones will train more balanced levels of speed and strength. But that’s a far less efficient use of time and energy than performing Olympic lifts, which train speed and strength simultaneously.

Another reason traditional jump squats are not as effective in training power relates to the high impact ground forces athletes have to absorb when landing the jump squat. As humans, we have a protective mechanism that preserves our body, or at least helps us avoid injuries. If the body naturally senses that we’re at risk of injuring ourselves, it subconsciously begins to shut down muscle activation to preserve itself.

A perfect example of this is the impact force of a tackle generated by an American football player in pads compared to that of a rugby player without pads. This video shows both scenarios—an American football player and a rugby player both giving their greatest amount of exertion to deliver the biggest blow. The rugby player is arguably bigger and more powerful than the American football player. But the American football player can deliver a far greater level of force (more than double) on impact than the rugby player.

A plausible explanation is that that the pads deactivate the football player’s self-preservation mechanism, as opposed to the rugby player whose lack of protection exposes them to the impact. You can do this experiment at home. Actually, I don’t want anyone to really try this, because it could lead to serious injury. So instead, imagine yourself mustering the force and speed to punch a brick wall as hard as you can, barehanded. Simply thinking about that pain and potential for injury makes me cringe. Next, imagine throwing the same hard punch against a softer surface, like a punching bag or a mattress.

We don’t need a measuring device to know which scenario would produce the greatest amount of force on impact. Unless you have no regard for your wellbeing, the greatest amount of impact force will be produced by the scenario where the body is not feeling a greater risk of injury.

The same self-preservation mechanism kicks in on jump squats when the lifter begins to place more than 30% of one rep max onto the bar. The lifter subconsciously reduces their effort during the concentric phase, knowing very well that what goes up must come down, and the landing will place the body under an immense amount of ground impact forces.

Basically, the body’s response is to diminish the impact by slowing down on the exertion (concentric) phase of the movement. The consequence of the subconscious shutting down of muscle exertion during the concentric phase is the limitation of speed and force levels that relate to power production with heavier loads.

Two Ways to Overcome the Limitations of the Jump Squat

 1. Reduce the Jump Squat’s Ground Impact Forces

One excellent way to reduce the ground impact forces in jump squats is to eliminate having to land with the loaded barbell on the lifter’s back. The most straightforward way to do this is to simply release the barbell off of the lifter’s back so they don’t have to catch it. It’s something you can do on a platform with bumper plates. But when you want to do multiple repetitions one right after another, getting the bar back onto your shoulders will be a whole other challenge.

Video 1. Jump squats using the XPT, a power rack that catches the bar for the lifter at the top of the lift.

As an alternative, you can use a machine that has a safety catch. I invented the XPT, a power rack with a safety catch, for this very purpose. I experienced both the positive and negative effects that come from jump squatting. Can you blame me for learning from my past when I blew out my hamstring? That moment was a big motivator for me to come up with a way to do jump squats without having to land with the weight on your back. A power rack that can catch the bar for the lifter diminishes the negative effects of ground impact forces without compromising the positive effects of jump squatting.

2. Effectively Train Power by Jump Squatting with Heavy Loads

As established earlier, as loads greater than 30% of your one rep max are added to the bar, your power production incrementally decreases. The lifter’s self-preservation mechanism kicks in because the body senses the landing will increase their risk of injury.

Turn the jump squat into a safe lift to effectively train speed and power simultaneously, says @BradyPoppinga. #jumpsquat #powertraining Share on X

This changes when the lifter has full confidence they won’t have to land with the loaded barbell on their back. As displayed in the graph below, peak power output increases when the lifter does not have to absorb the free-falling bar above the 30% one rep max threshold to about 80%. This adjustment turns the jump squat into a lift that trains both speed and power simultaneously, which arguably places it in the same category as Olympic lifts for developing power effectively.

From my experience, jump squatting with the ability to release the bar at the top of the movement and reducing ground impact forces, allows for optimal power production and development. I believe in the theories about jump squatting with no catch—not only because they make sense, but also because I’ve personally put them to the test.

Releasing the bar at the top of a jump squat offers safe, optimal power and speed development, says @BradyPoppinga. #jumpsquat #powertraining Share on X

For about six years, I’ve exclusively trained power by performing different variations of jump squats with varying loads without having to land with the loaded bar. I’ve increased my power production at a greater rate than any other point in my life. And bear in mind that this is six years removed from when I trained obsessively with Olympic lifts and other methods that are common in performance training while playing college and pro football.

It’s hard to argue with these results, particularly considering my age (39 years old ) and my injury history (three knee surgeries, including two ACL reconstructions, a herniated disc, and chronic knee pain), along with the wear and tear that comes from playing college football and almost a decade in the NFL.

Training power exclusively with jump squats without catching the bar transfers to the platform, says @BradyPoppinga. #jumpsquat #powertraining Share on X

I’ve also concluded from my experience that exclusively working power through jump squats without catching the bar transfers to the platform. I don’t work power clean technique at all—I don’t even train on the platform. I only get on the platform to demonstrate the level of proficiency I’ve been able to attain just by doing jump squats with no catch.

Video 2. As you can see in the video, I was able to power clean 308 pounds three times in a row after training exclusively by jump squatting with heavier loads on the XPT.

In the video above, my technique is horrendous, and I’m sure all the technique gurus out there are cringing just watching it. But the reality is that I’ve never in my life been able to power clean 308 pounds that many times and at that speed. So from my experience, there’s no way I can sit here and say that jump squatting with no catch is not a comparable developer of power as Olympic lifting, especially with how well it translates to the platform.

Final Thoughts

What if a jump squat without catching the barbell is just as effective as Olympic lifts in terms of power development but with less wear and tear on the body? Ultimately, this is the question we have to answer.

What coach or athlete wouldn’t love to train optimal power and decrease injury risk? Imagine from a trainer’s perspective that teaching proper lifting was as simple as teaching the basics of the bench and squat and their variations and then adding explosive movements built on these fundamental movement patterns—like jump squats with no catch.

It would optimize the athlete’s learning curve and increase the proficiency of implementing a fundamentally sound training program. These are questions and ideas that should always be in the back of the mind of any trainer or athlete who is serious about getting the most from their time and energy invested, either in training themselves or others.

We no longer need to look at jump squatting as a supplemental lift. With time, and as we begin to pull back the layers, jump squatting will become a staple performance movement—as long as there’s a way to release the barbell at the top of the lift without having to catch it. That’s where the jump squat’s properties will evolve from a supplemental lift to a foundational performance-enhancing movement.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

An increased vertical jump is possibly the most important developmental goal for a basketball player. I have worked in basketball for over a decade—including at the professional and international levels—and no matter what you do in training and what S&C program you look to put in place, the same question comes back from players: Will this increase my vertical leap?

I’ve seen a lot of training advice online and in magazines, and it usually focuses on very high-volume plyometric activities, without much thought behind logical progressions and long-term impact. The usual problem is based on the fact that most players are not physically developed well enough to tolerate high-volume plyometrics without risk of injury.¹ Anyone who has worked in basketball or other jumping-dominant sports will know that knee injuries are all too common.²

The problem is that most basketball players are not physically developed enough to tolerate high-volume plyometrics without risk of injury. Share on X

Studies have shown that basketball players can make more than 60 jumping movements in a game, with perhaps more in daily basketball training sessions.³ Do they really need more jumping on top of that? And a more important question: What will this increased jumping do to their bodies?

I am reluctant to prescribe high-volume jumping activities for a new athlete solely because they’ve requested them. Instead, I try and get them to buy into a long-term program that I know will get results. This isn’t always easy, as the foundational basis of training isn’t as desirable and doesn’t offer an obvious direct transfer to jumping ability. Expedience is not my aim, however, and it shouldn’t be for an athlete, either. We are often too quick to offer a fast solution to athletes, rather than taking the time to work with them and get them to understand that most things that will benefit them take time and effort.

Specific Jumping Ability and the Performance Chain

The evidence is quite clear with regard to the optimal progressions required to develop an increased vertical jump.^4-8What I am talking about is the application of force, and what we find with many athletes is that their ability to generate force is limited because they are not very strong. Over my years of testing, I have used 1RM scores/estimates as well as an array of jump protocols. These include a squat jump (SJ) with a pause at the bottom, a countermovement jump (CMJ), and a drop jump (DJ) from a 30-centimeter box. Each of these jumps, along with the 1RM score, tells us something different about how the athlete generates force and is therefore a great diagnostic tool.^9,10

My common findings with basketball players are that they have a relatively low 1RM, along with a large difference between their SJ and CMJ scores. I also often look at a jump using a step-in and an arm swing, like they would when jumping in basketball. This is where you suddenly see the skill application of jumping ability. While the basketball player shows modest SJ ability, their basketball-specific jump is very impressive, sometimes as much as 100% higher than their SJ.

What this tells us is that they have already trained their specific jumping abilities a great deal, and there are limited gains to be made by purely focusing on this aspect. It doesn’t matter how much more jumping they do—they will not improve their jumping ability more because they have reached their ceiling. Instead, then, we must look at the weakness (which, in this case is literal weakness). By increasing their strength and overall force-producing ability, we will increase their overall capacity to jump higher. We are, in effect, increasing the ceiling. To put it another way, all things being equal, the strongest athlete will be the one who can jump the highest.

Once athletes hit their ceiling on jumping ability, increasing their strength and overall force production will increase their overall capacity to jump higher. Share on X

So, we can now use our knowledge of S&C to work backwards along the performance chain. We start with the vertical jump and look at what physical qualities it requires. We then work backwards to power, then to strength, and then to hypertrophy and movement ability. Of course, the labels that I use here are not true physiological variables, since what I am really talking about is the ability to produce force in a limited period of time. (Less than half a second for a CMJ, but different jumps in a basketball game might need to be performed in different time periods. It therefore makes sense to develop an array of jumping abilities).¹¹

The rationale, therefore, is that to perform a vertical jump, you must go through a flexion and subsequent extension of the ankle, knee, and hip. This must be done with high levels of force, in a relatively short period of time, in order to propel the body into the air. This means that we need to produce a high-impulse or take-off velocity.

Now, in order to create a large impulse, we need to get our high threshold motor units to fire very quickly. We also need to use the spring effect of our muscle-tendon unit and coordinate the movement as efficiently as possible. The graphic below highlights some of the variables we may wish to consider.

First Steps to a Higher Jump

The performance testing that we have already carried out gives us an indication of what we need to work on first. We know that the athlete already has good jumping skills and has trained this jumping movement a lot during their sport, so we can infer that there may be limited benefit to performing more jumping drills. We also know that they are relatively weak and that their force-generating capacity is limited. So, we should certainly look at developing their levels of muscular strength. Research tells us that this can be done through high-intensity resistance training (>85%) to improve neural drive and develop the type II fibers.⁴

However, force-producing capacity is also determined by the cross-sectional area of the muscle, and therefore, if our muscles are relatively small, our overall ability to produce force is limited.¹² So, we must also look at increasing the size of the muscle. This can be done by introducing moderate- to high-intensity resistance training, with higher volume. But we must also be mindful that the mass of the athlete will affect jump height, so overall hypertrophy should be kept somewhat minimal, with a focus on the type II fibers.

In order to train at this required volume and to develop an athlete who will be as robust and injury-free as possible, we must also consider their tissue capacity and resilience, and ensure that the basic movement skills are in place. If we have an athlete who has done very little work with weights and does not display good mobility through the ankle and hip, then we must first look to develop these skills. This can be done using an initial block of training at a lower intensity, with slow controlled movements, through a full range of motion. This should help ensure that optimal muscle balance is in place, which could be a factor in future injury occurrence.¹³

What we have done here is work backwards from the endpoint of the vertical jump, ensuring that all of the relevant prerequisites to performance are in place. So, we can now start by training the foundational movements, such as full squat, split squat, deadlift/RDL, and step-up. This ensures a balance of squat and hinge movements with both one and two legs. We implement this with some relatively high-volume training and moderate intensity and look to develop these movement qualities first.

Once our athletes are competent and have developed some muscle size and tendon/ligament strength, we can then increase the intensity of the training and focus on developing the output from the high threshold motor units and type II fibers. It is important by this stage of training to emphasize maximal intent when lifting. Even if the intensity/load is high, meaning that the observed velocity is low, the intent should be that they’re going as fast as possible.

Following that, we can then look to recruit this new, higher level of force in a shorter period of time and look to coordinate the movement as well as possible. This will involve:

1. Loaded and unloaded jumps, initially through a full concentric portion of a movement, and then progressing to incorporate the countermovement/ stretch-shortening cycle.
2. Next, we can develop a reactive element through bounding and repeated jump activities.
3. The final stage may be to try and sustain these improvements while under fatigue, while also looking at developing different jump strategies.

A good analogy for this process is to think of our muscle fibers as individuals on a sports team. Now, if that team has no individual star players but is drilled so well that members outperform their expectations, this is the equivalent of the basketball athlete with relatively weak muscle fibers. Even though the individual force-generating ability of the muscle fibers is relatively low, the coordination and skill element are trained well enough to display good overall results.

We want to train our athletes so they have the all-star team of muscles, but also drill them well enough with jumping movements so they outperform their own expectations. Share on X

Now, you can think of the opposite scenario, which would be an all-star team with superstar players who have never trained together, and therefore underperform in competition. This would be the situation where someone is very strong and powerful but has never trained the jumping mechanism sufficiently, and therefore the overall measure of their jump is surprisingly low. What we want to do is train our athletes so that they have the all-star team of muscles, but also drill them well enough with jumping movements so that they outperform even their own high expectations. This is the Olympic-level athlete. This is the Dream Team.

A One-Year Plan

If we now consider a full season, we can plan how to develop these qualities, and we can perhaps predict that if we stick closely to this plan, we will increase our jumping ability by 3-6 inches by this same time next year. I have found exactly this with many of the athletes I have worked with, and the great thing is that they then become role models for others the following year. Players see the athletes who bought in and the results that they have achieved, which serves as motivation for them to also buy in.

The following training plan that I present offers a rough guide that would be suitable for most basketball athletes. However, it does not incorporate exercises for other parts of the body, and it does not consider individual needs or the demands of scheduling. Your athletes may require different intensities or volumes, which can be judged through good monitoring and coaching. Exercise selection could also be different.

The individual coach may prefer a different squat pattern exercise or a different power exercise, such as a clean. The specifics of this are not as important as the thought process behind such programming. However, the ideas presented here can be successfully implemented into the training schedules of most athletes. This is the basis of what I have used with hundreds of basketball athletes over the past decade, with excellent results.

(I should also note that some low-level jumping and stability work should be done right from the start of the training cycle. This can include hop + holds and box jump + land type activities.)

May–June: Movement + Hypertrophy

This block will develop the foundational movement patterns and tissue quality, which will be required for the season ahead. It will use unilateral and bilateral leg exercises, as there are different benefits to gain from each type of exercise. The seated calf raise is included to enhance the calf musculature and, in particular, the soleus and Achilles tendon. The intensity is not the most important aspect of this phase, but it should ideally be over 60% max.

July–August: Strength + Hypertrophy

Using similar exercises as the previous training block, this phase will look to develop higher force outputs and elicit some gains in lean muscle mass. This will be achieved through higher intensity, possibly up to 80% max.

September–October: Strength

This is the final block where strength gains will be the main priority. This will be achieved through intensities of around 85% max. This should develop the high threshold motor units and type II fibers.

November–December: Strength + Power

This is where we begin to incorporate the higher velocity (power) exercises, such as loaded jumps. Initially, this is done using a full range of motion, with a focus on the concentric portion of the lift. This will enhance neural drive, synchronization, and overall contraction velocity. The intensity on the jump squat would be up to 40% max and the intensity on the back squat up to 90% max.

January–February: Power

This next block looks to develop the counter-movement aspect of the jump, which means an improvement to the functioning of the muscle-tendon unit. You will likely be able to lead to a higher intensity with the trap bar jump in comparison to the squat jump, which is useful as we are hoping to develop force across a range of velocities. Notice that key lifts such as the back squat and hip thrust are still included to help maintain muscle balance, strength, and mobility. The use of the bands on the back squat means that we can overload the top portion of the lift more, which relates more specifically to the vertical jump.

March–April: Power + Speed

In this final phase, the goal is to work on the reactive capacity of the body, with a focus on velocity and more specific basketball movements. The jump squats would be loaded minimally, with perhaps just the 20 kg bar used. The plyometric and basketball-specific jumps would be unloaded. This would also be a good time to incorporate other speed or agility work, if desired.

Understanding Long-Term Power Development

As a final note, I would emphasize that this program is suitable for the “typical” basketball athlete, which, in my experience, is more than 95% of all basketball players. There may be situations where the athlete is well-trained and developed in the hypertrophy and strength areas and would therefore benefit more from direct power training and jumping activities. However, this is the exception, not the rule.

I have, however, encountered athletes like this who have transferred from one sport to another. An example, which is common in rugby, is an athlete who displays good 1RM strength and a reasonable SJ, but a comparatively poor CMJ or DJ. This may be an athlete that you can program for differently, but this should be determined through proper diagnostic testing and evaluation.

We often start by being too specific in what we try to achieve with basketball players, instead of looking at the prerequisites that need to be in place. Share on X

To summarize, the framework and rationale outlined here are appropriate for the vast majority of basketball athletes looking to increase their vertical jump. While this does not go into specifics regarding the types of jumps and plyometrics to perform, this outline does justify a sustainable and effective approach to vertical jump development. The point is that we often start by being too specific in what we are trying to achieve with basketball players, instead of looking at the prerequisites that need to be in place. I would hope that coaches and athletes consider these elements when designing and developing training programs, and that they will appreciate the long-term benefit of training in this manner.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Brazier, J., Bishop, C., Simons, C., Antrobus, M., Read, P.J. and Turner, A.N. “Lower extremity stiffness: Effects on performance and injury and implications for training.” Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2014;36(5): 103-112.

2. Arendt, E. and Dick, R. “Knee injury patterns among men and women in collegiate basketball and soccer: NCAA data and review of literature.” The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 1995; 23(6): 694-701.

3. McInnes, S.E., Carlson, J.S., Jones, C.J. and McKenna, M.J. “The physiological load imposed on basketball players during competition.” Journal of Sports Sciences. 1995; 13(5): 387-397.

4. Kraemer, W.J., Fleck, S.J. and Evans, W.J. “Strength and power training: physiological mechanisms of adaptation.” Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 1996; 24: 363-397.

5. Cronin, J.B. and Hansen, K. T. “Strength and power predictors of sports speed.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2005; 9(2): 349-357.

6. Wisløff, U., Castagna, C., Helgerud, J., Jones, R. and Hoff, J. “Strong correlation of maximal squat strength with sprint performance and vertical jump height in elite soccer players.” British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2004; 38(3): 285-288.

7. Baker, D., & Nance, S. “The relation between running speed and measures of strength and power in professional rugby league players.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.1999; 13(3): 230-235.

8. Markovic, G. “Does plyometric training improve vertical jump height? A meta-analytical review.” British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2007; 41(6): 349-355.

9. Bobbert, M.F., Gerritsen, K.G., Litjens, M.C. and Van Soest, A.J. “Why is countermovement jump height greater than squat jump height?” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1996; 28: 1402-1412.

10. Nuzzo, J.L., McBride, J.M., Cormie, P. and McCaulley, G.O. “Relationship between countermovement jump performance and multijoint isometric and dynamic tests of strength.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2008; 22(3): 699-707.

11. Cormie, P., McBride, J.M. and McCaulley, G.O. “Power-time, force-time, and velocity-time curve analysis of the countermovement jump: impact of training.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2009;23(1): 177-186.

12. Chavda, S., Bromley, T., Jarvis, P., Williams, S., Bishop, C., Turner, A.N., Lake, J.P. and Mundy, P.D. “Force-time characteristics of the countermovement jump: analyzing the curve in Excel.” Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2018; 40(2): 67-77.

13. Newton, R.U., et al. “Determination of functional strength imbalance of the lower extremities.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2006; 20(4): 971-977.

By William Wayland

The squat has become a contentious issue of late, and the questioning of its applicability has been explored extensively across this website, including these two must-reads by Carl Valle and Bryan Mann.

Squatting is an important athletic development tool and it should absolutely be trained in conjunction with unilateral work. This is not an either/or scenario, but an optimization through intentionally programming the concurrent or sequential application of both. The back squat can often stymie athletes and coaches coming to it late in the game, especially if steps were skipped during development phases for the athlete.

If you are after extensive guides on the anatomy and physics of the barbell back squat, I’d suggest going to read other articles on SimpliFaster or Greg Nuckols’ über guide on squatting. This article will focus on applied coaching challenges and how to overcome them.

Let’s get the squat depth talk out of the way first. Squat depth has been shown to have a significant effect on muscular development at the hip and knee joints, particularly with respect to the glutes. For instance, with on-the-road squatting, working with a population of traveling athletes means variance in the availability of equipment, so having the door knob squat or solid bodyweight squat as options opens up a world of possibility and consistency.

The key takeaway here is that movement quality drives loading strategy and not the other way around, says @WSWayland. Share on X

The key takeaway in this article is that movement quality drives loading strategy and not the other way around. This may require “going back to school” for some athletes, but the longer-term payoff is worth the investment of time, even if this means mastering the bodyweight squat for a short period of time before moving on to loaded variations. To quote Carl Valle, “Barbell squatting is relevant, so if you can do it right then continue using this king of exercises.”

Having a rough plan for progression is a fundamental key to getting an athlete up to that clean, desirable back squat. I’ve seen instances of athletes rushed from a respectable bodyweight squat to a mediocre partial squat in a matter of weeks, primarily for the sense of progression, but also to feed the coach’s (and possibly the athlete’s) ego.

The Bodyweight Squat

The bodyweight squat is an absolutely overlooked exercise on the path to achieving a squat. You will occasionally come across athletes who can’t achieve this otherwise simple ask. The propensity is to progress people straight to a goblet squat or to entirely skip any sort of unloaded skill work and jump straight to a barbell squat. This is where the quarter squat phenomenon (to be covered later) in otherwise active trainees/athletes comes from. Coaches often talk about the necessity of bodyweight basics, but overlook this entirely to chase barbell numbers.

The bodyweight squat is an absolutely overlooked exercise on the path to achieving a squat, says @WSWayland. Share on X

This inability to perform a simple bodyweight squat is often seen in outsized athletes dealing with big body weights or leverages that rob them of stability. This is also a skill I find lacking when we run new intakes of youth athletes; the inability to bodyweight squat often rides along with an inability to perform other simple bodyweight skills. The simple act of proper generation of tension in the upper extremities can often alleviate perceptive instability.

Video 1. Simple mobility exercises that teach posture are foundational to squatting with a great pattern. Bodyweight movements are about teaching control, so make sure the athletes value them and don’t rush to add load to a bar.

Things like reaching have positive and negatives outcomes, as reaching helps provide counterbalance but can lead to excessive torso lean. Crossing the arms in a faux front squat can also be useful, but what I’ve found more useful is a position akin to a volleyball spike held at shoulder height and then focused on screwing the elbows downward, switching on the pecs and lats. Another novel strategy is having an athlete tightly hug themselves or something else, like a foam roller or med ball.

These are all strategies that require adjustments, then retests, and then further adjustments. Further progression can come in the form of simply loading the bodyweight squat with a vest or chains or both, and it’s entirely possible to make solid progress using this approach with very large athletes.

Anchored Squat

There is a subset of squatting that really doesn’t get the recognition it deserves as the squats aren’t considered true strength lifts in any meaningful sense. I’m calling this class of movement “anchored squatting,” but I’m probably not the first to think of this. By anchored, I’m suggesting that a single point—either the lifter or the load lifted—is in contact with anything external to the closed chain squat pattern.

The anchored squat ranges from door knob to band-supported to hand-supported safety bar squatting or supported belt squatting. The commonality is this: Giving an anchor eliminates the primary block to the full squat, which is compensatory shutdown due to perceived or real loss of stability. The doorknob squat is generally a great starting point for the absolute novice or the squatting-averse. By allowing a backward weight shift and a tall torso, it encourages the athlete to sit deeper into their squat.

The doorknob squat is generally a great starting point for the absolute novice or the squatting-averse, says @WSWayland. Share on X

This can then be progressed a number of ways, introducing the suspension squat using rings or a suspension trainer. Both these movements allow for backward weight shift. More-advanced anchored exercises mitigate forward weight shift, which is a limiter to stability once the athlete becomes more confident with their squat pattern. Movements like landmine squats and hand-supported squats place support anteriorly, but that is about as far as the similarities go.

Landmine squats are often touted as a useful squat alternative, and they are, to a point. The positioning of the landmine means the athlete can lean into the movement but still be challenged from a lateral stability standpoint, as the landmine arm still has a large degree of movement. It does come with one drawback: It can’t be loaded in a meaningful manner (much like the goblet squat). But it does make a good option when stuck in a gym with no rack or means of doing a moderately loaded squat variation.

Video 2. Healthy athletes can benefit from a heavy dose of anchored squat patterns. Some coaches add breathing elements or other skills, but make sure the movement is done properly.

The hand-supported squat or the Hatfield squat is a full circle of sorts: squatting with a safety bar and holding on to the rig, handles, or a bar set in the rack. This then allows the athlete to overload an already well-established squat pattern by taking out the limiting factor of anterior stability. It’s not uncommon to see athletes using 25% or more on top of their conventional back squat. I’ve increasingly seen it used as crutch to get athletes under a bar at the expense of good-quality movement; this is often demonstrated by dramatic hip shift, overuse of the arms, and a collapsed position.

Anchored squatting sits on a spectrum of options, but is always inherently inferior to traditional closed chain squatting. This is why this type of squatting can be used as a learning tool and discarded when viable; as an accessory movement to target specific facets of the squat pattern; and/or at its extreme, a means of novelty/stress reduction while maintaining a squat pattern in a training program.

Back Squatting in a Meaningful Fashion

The path to better back squats often lies in achieving a better front-loaded squat. Anterior loading acts as great way of achieving a smooth squat pattern. This can start with doorknob squats, move to plate-loaded front squats, progress to goblet squats, Zercher squats, and finally front and then back squats. This is because resisting anterior load is easier than trying to resist axial load for the uninitiated.

Scott Thom, writing for Just Fly Sports, said: “Why front squat first? The front squat:

1. Forces you to keep your elbows up and pointed straight ahead, teaching you what it feels like to keep a big chest and maintain vertical posture through ROM of squat.
2. Teaches you how to push your knees out and point your toes in the same direction as your knees. Thus, helping you to understand what it feels like to open up your hips.
3. Forces you to sit back, or your heels will come off the ground. Helping you feel what it means to have your weight balanced. If your weight is too far back and you’re not clawing your big toe into the ground you will feel off-balance.”

The front squat is preferred as a starting point for the back squat because it encourages a movement-strategy-first approach. I can always spot the athletes who have spent time front squatting versus those who have not just from looking at their back squat. The athlete who has not taken these steps will approach squatting with trepidation and, at worst, turn every back squat into a partial one.

The front squat is a preferred starting point for the back squat because it encourages a movement-strategy-first approach, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Notice that I make no mention of wall squats and/or overhead squats as progressions. Wall squats are often ugly movements that wind up with an athlete having to reach, but also lean, excessively anteriorly to achieve a good squat position. This is the same reason the overhead squat gets no mention, as it primarily becomes a shoulder/t-spine mobility challenge, which is outside the scope of this article. Overhead squats are often a display of mobility rather than a means to improve it or load the lower body in any meaningful fashion. The overhead squat must be earned, and in my experience, it has limited meaningful transfer. It’s an impressive display of strength, but that’s all it is—largely a display.

Video 3. Eccentrics are not just for stressing the body, but also challenging the brain. Heavy eccentrics provide major benefits to athletes by challenging upper centers of coordination while also training the general nervous system.

The partial squat is often the calling card of an athlete who has missed out on much of the aforementioned preparation. Partial squatting is often a subconscious compensation for unfamiliar joint positions and, importantly, a loss of balance. We know the benefits of loaded partial squats, but the majority of people perform them as a protective strategy rather than a performance-oriented one.

Idiosyncrasies are the common explanation of the partial squat apologists. But it is easy to differentiate an athlete who is comfortable in the squat at any depth from an athlete who lacks confidence, which is usually denoted by an inability to harness any sort of rapid eccentric action and a slowing tacking to a depth they feel is deep enough. Thus, the subsequent concentric phase is usually ropey as a result. This is often a case of loading strategy driving movement quality, rather than movement quality driving loading. I’ll explore this idea with two further examples.

Pragmatic coaches like Alan Bishop make extensive use of squat wedges. Cry and moan about it being a crutch all you want—it works well in populations typified by ankle stiffness limitations such as basketball.

Squat Progression

– Movement quality drives loading strategy
– Range > Load

Squat Low, Jump High
⬇️⬇️ 30 days of training ⬇️⬇️ pic.twitter.com/hUmDArVroF

— Alan Bishop (@CoachAlanBishop) February 13, 2019

The squat wedge ostensibly acts to artificially lengthen the Achilles tendon and reduce “excessive forward trunk flexion.” Much like the thinking behind weightlifting shoes, this allows for forward knee translation and greater knee flexion. This isn’t the crutch some think it is as it patterns good movement. The wedge can be employed in various fashions: I’ve seen athletes who can squat perfectly well with bodyweight without a wedge, then as soon as they are loaded, compensatory shutdown for whatever reason stops them from achieving meaningful depth.

The introduction of the wedge allows for a positive flow to training. This is an example of movement quality preceding loading, even if that movement quality is assisted in a sense. Because athletes have greater movement availability, they can practice using it, which will further grease movement capability. Contrast this, however, to the “fix” below, which often causes more problems than it fixes.

The bench/box squat is an example of an approach that is a crutch that can pattern bad movement. Divorced from the powerlifting or accelerative strength context (usually for those who can full squat or a return-from-injury case), this often becomes a recipe for problems. The thinking is sound: Lower the height of the box/bench until the athlete can perform the movement with a full squat. However, this doesn’t ever seem to play out as progression strategy. Why? Because it is often a loading-led approach rather than a movement-led one.

Because it is often loading-led rather than movement-led, the bench/box squat is an example of an approach that can pattern bad movement, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Rather than dropping the load and focusing on good mechanics, a shoddy loaded squat to a box is still a shoddy partial squat. The then subsequent introduction of greater depth at crucial angles with the same loads means complete system failure more often than not. I’ve seen otherwise stable squats to a high box reduced to panic-inducing mornings with the mere introduction of an extra inch or two of depth. This is because the inherent pattern is still faulty, and more range of movement won’t fix that. Things like proper forward knee movement and minimization of trunk lean are abandoned in favor of “finding” the box.

As you can see, there are two strategies here that try to improvise pathways to a better squat: One manipulating simple mechanics to allow for greater movement, the other incremental to foster movement under load. Movement-led approaches to fundamental movement patterns allow for long-lasting capabilities rather than shortsighted compensations.

Here are a few strategies for tying all this thinking together:

1. Have a Written Strategy for Navigating the Path to a Back Squat

The one we use at Powering Through Performance looks something like this.

6 Point Kneeling > Bodyweight > Bodyweight+ > Anchored Squat > Anterior Squatting > Back Squat

Because we have a number of coaches coaching different athletes over time, we can pick up where another has left off. Having an agreed-upon progression framework prevents us from undermining each other’s work. Do we deviate from this structure as needed? Of course we do—a path allows for deviation from that path.

While yours could be different from mine, having progression strategies in place for most exercises is not a bad thing. There is also no harm in selling the progression strategy to athletes so they can see a viable pathway to achieving outcomes both they and the coach want.

2. Understand the Difference Between Building Dependencies and Competencies

This sounds outwardly simple. But it is easy for coaches to make what seem like logical deductions to tackle problems and end up building further compensations that hinder the athlete in the long run. I’ve seen this in athletes who have been coached into a corner with dependencies on things like landmine/goblet squats (usually stemming from fear of load) or partial squats (load addicted, but unwilling to step back). The trickiest dependency to navigate is the one built from injury or injury anxiety, either real or imagined, or enforced through a poor choice of words from another coach or physio.

3. Have a Regression Strategy

A lot of traveling athletes who often conduct training alone and/or see their coach infrequently will, on occasion, need regression. Athletes will often build dependencies all on their own. I have had terse conversations with athletes unwilling to try anything other than their chosen, unproductive squat variant, sharing a regression plan and a subsequent follow-on progression strategy. You are more likely to get good buy-in if they understand why regression occurs and the benefits of doing it.

4. Understand That Anchored Squatting Is a Pathway or a Plan B, Not a Holding Pattern

The general population can thrive on novelty and modest difficulty, so the rationale of anchored variants makes more sense here than in athletic populations. Anchored movements can be learning movements—a supplementary/plan B exercise as circumstances dictate. Problems start to creep in when they’re used as a crutch movement because, generally, loading isn’t really high enough to manifest any meaningful lower body stress.

The aim of this post wasn’t to coach back squats per se, but to think about how we get there. A lot of coaches do this intuitively, but it’s clear, evidenced by what we often see on social media, that not everyone is quite so intuitive. While this acts as excellent fodder for disparaging others, I ask why these situations occur.

There are a number of steps between taking someone from being squat-deficient to a full bodyweight squat to the finally axially loaded endgame. For the strength training inclined, it’s easy to be full of answers. However, when you are confronted with populations of athletes that are perhaps less inclined towards lifting—especially those willfully combative when it comes to change or progressing/regressing—having a plan in place is part of winning the battle.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Charlton, J.M., et al. “The Effects of a Heel Wedge on Hip, Pelvis and Trunk Biomechanics During Squatting in Resistance Trained Individuals.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2017;31(6):1678-1687.

Schoenfeld, B. “The Biomechanics of Squat Depth.” NSCA