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Gluten-free diets are becoming increasingly popular, with sales of gluten-free foods reaching over $4 billion and growing in the United States alone. Many people attribute various symptoms to gluten including fatigue, bloating, and a general lack of energy. As always, athletes are quick to jump on any new trend, and gluten-free diets are no different.

Perhaps most famous among these athletes is Novak Djokovic, who quite often attributes his mid-career resurgence to avoiding gluten (and, of course, has a gluten-free book available). In fact, a 2015 questionnaire-based study shows that more than 40% of high-level athletes follow a gluten-free diet more than half the time. If so many athletes follow a gluten-free diet, should you? And, if you do, will it improve your performance?

Gluten and Celiac Disease

First let’s understand a little bit about the purported villain. Gluten is a protein found in wheat products and gives dough its chewy texture. Gluten is well-established as a trigger for celiac disease, which is an autoimmune disorder that affects the small intestine.

When people with celiac disease consume gluten, they have an abnormal immune response that causes an inflammatory reaction. Repeated exposures can lead to a wasting of the microvilli–small, finger-like structures in the small intestine that serves to increase its surface area, making absorption easier. When the immune response is triggered, people with celiac disease can experience such symptoms as diarrhea and bloating as well as malabsorption of nutrients. None of these are ideal for athletes.

While these symptoms sound scary, we’ve all likely suffered them in the past. Fortunately, celiac disease is somewhat rare. The vast majority of people with the disease have a genetic predisposition to it, specifically around a set of HLA genes. These genes play a role in immune function by enabling the body to distinguish self from non-self cells. Having these genes doesn’t mean you will get celiac disease. Indeed, the vast majority of people with the risk genetic variants never develop celiac disease. In total, about 1% of people develop celiac disease, although that differs across countries and ethnic groups.

The only treatment for celiac disease is a gluten-free diet, and those who suffer from it do need to avoid gluten. There’s another condition known as non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS), which isn’t celiac disease but is a sensitivity to gluten. Approximately 10% of people have NCGS, although it’s quite a new diagnosis and is somewhat less well understood.

Gluten and High-Level Athletes

If 10% of people have celiac disease or NCGS, why do more than 40% of high-level athletes follow a gluten-free diet most of the time? According to the 2015 questionnaire-based study, those who reported following a predominately gluten-free diet did so based on a self-diagnosed gluten sensitivity (which is worrying) or no symptoms at all.

Ten percent of the athletes did have a clinically diagnosed gluten sensitivity, which is well within the normal range for a population. Almost as many had coaches, trainers, or a naturopathic doctor who recommended the gluten-free diet. Only 0.5%, or two people in the entire 910 subject sample, had a gluten-free diet prescribed by a nutritionist or dietician.

The sources of information about gluten and gluten-free diets is also concerning.

• Of the gluten-free athletes, 29% said their main source of information was the internet, closely followed by their coach (26%) and other athletes (17%).
• Only 15% of the gluten-free athletes said that their main source of information was either a dietician or a medical professional, the most appropriate professionals to make recommendations regarding a gluten-free diet.

Gluten and Athletic Performance

Because of how trendy and popular this diet has become, many athletes avoid gluten even though they don’t have any symptoms because they believe it will improve performance.

But will it? That’s what a study published in 2015 attempted to explore. Researchers put 13 endurance cyclists with no clinical history of celiac disease through a blind trial where the athletes consumed a diet either with or without gluten for seven days. They didn’t know which diet they were on because the gluten was included in a bar that had a gluten-free counterpart. After following each diet for seven days, the cyclists underwent a time-trial cycle test.

There was no difference in performance among the athletes consuming the gluten-free and gluten-containing diets. There was also no difference in their subjective feelings of well-being or on markers of inflammation. Simply put, for athletes who do not have gluten sensitivity, a gluten-free diet has no impact on performance.

For athletes who do not have #gluten sensitivity, a gluten-free diet has no impact on performance, says @craig100m. Share on X

How Does a Gluten-Free Diet Affect Athlete Nutrition

Gluten likely doesn’t have a positive effect on exercise performance, meaning we don’t need it to perform at our best. But because gluten is prevalent in foods, researchers are concerned that following a gluten-free diet may lead to nutritional inadequacy; it requires eliminating foods that contain nutrients that athletes need.

An obvious example is carbohydrates, many of which (bread, pasta, etc.) contain gluten. Athletes typically need more carbohydrates to support their training, and following a gluten-free diet may prevent them from meeting this requirement. Gluten-free diets can also be expensive, with some estimates putting the increased cost at 2.5 times that of a balanced diet containing gluten.

This isn’t to say that a gluten-free diet is always bad. Returning to the questionnaire study, 80% of the athletes who followed a gluten-free diet reported improved gastrointestinal symptoms, indicating they experienced some positive effects from eating non-gluten foods.

Of course, the true effects of gluten are hard to tease out. Only 10% of people should show sensitivity to gluten, and far more athletes self-report symptoms of gluten sensitivity that are resolved when following a gluten-free diet.

Prolonged #endurance exercise causes gastrointestinal distress in up to 90% of athletes, says @craig100m. Share on X

It’s important to point out that a large number of the gluten-free athletes (70%) in this study participated in endurance sports. Prolonged endurance exercise causes gastrointestinal distress, affecting up to 90% of athletes. Of course, a combination of factors can cause this gastrointestinal distress, including a reduction in blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract and consumption of very high carbohydrate sports drinks.

From a dietary perspective, FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols) are linked to gastrointestinal distress, and reducing these foods can reduce symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Indeed, endurance athletes suffer far fewer symptoms of gastrointestinal distress on a low FODMAP diet when compared to a high FODMAP one, as shown by more recent research by Dana Lis, author of many of the papers explored in this article.

A targeted reduction in FODMAPs, as opposed to gluten, may be a better approach for athletes who self-diagnose gluten sensitivity. They should still work with a doctor and a dietician to explore all the potential causes, just in case they do have celiac disease.

Reducing #FODMAPS rather than #gluten may help athletes who self-diagnose gluten sensitivity, says @craig100m. Share on X

Of course, like a gluten-free diet, a low FODMAP diet also has the potential to be nutritionally inadequate, which is why it should be undertaken under supervision by a dietician or nutritionist. Fortunately people can reintroduce many FODMAP foods until they identify the ones causing the most distress. Athletes also have the option to periodize the low FODMAP diet around races or more intense training sessions, where they reduce FODMAP intake to minimize their symptoms and follow a more standard diet outside this time.

How to Decide If a Gluten-Free Diet is Appropriate

So where does this leave athletes considering a gluten-free diet? If they’re considering the diet because they’ve heard that it enhances performance, the research suggests it does not. If they’re considering the diet because they have gastrointestinal symptoms, it’s worth exploring under medical supervision where they can be screened for celiac disease.

If gluten sensitivity is ruled out, other foods components may be causing the gastrointestinal distress. The most common culprits are FODMAPs. Again, exploring this should take place under the supervision of a dietician. Finally, an athlete may consume low FODMAP foods around competitions and important training sessions, where gastrointestinal distress is more likely, and then follow a more standardized diet at other times.

If an athlete has no symptoms of gluten sensitivity, like most people, there’s no reason to follow a gluten-free diet. As Dana Lis’ research shows, too many athletes and coaches are self-diagnosing gluten sensitivities. This may lead to inadequate nutrition or might hide the symptoms of other gastrointestinal issues that should be addressed.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Yoga continues to grow in popularity in Western culture and with soccer players, and you do not have to go far to find a yoga studio offering a range of classes that will benefit you no matter where you are within your training regimen. Many top professionals advocate for yoga, saying it improves the longevity of an athlete’s playing career.

Ryan Giggs seems to be the individual speaking the loudest and he probably means the most to the community, as he tallied an astonishing 963 appearances with Manchester United of the Premier League. Riddled with injury early in his career. Giggs often refers to yoga as his “Fountain of Youth” and a huge reason behind his ability to play into his 40s. Beyond that, I can speak personally to the amazing benefits of yoga, as an extremely unrecognized name in the lower divisions of professional soccer.

Giggs refers to yoga as his “Fountain of Youth” and the reason he’s able to play into his 40s. Share on X

So, this begs the question: Should every soccer player “do” yoga? If yoga really is the answer to solving all physical problems, then why isn’t every single Premier League Club investing all of their money and time into this amazing practice? If it were only that simple…

“It tests parts of your body that you just don’t use in football [soccer]. The first time I did it, about five years ago, I was completely knackered. I went home from the training ground and slept for three hours in the afternoon. I actually dreaded yoga for the first year because it made muscles I didn’t know I had ache, although I know some of the lads think it’s really a bit soft.” –Ryan Giggs

This quote from Giggs points to the obvious growing pains to practicing yoga that take time to work past. On top of that, there are also many other priorities when it comes to the physical preparation of a soccer player. Since time and energy are limited, other players may need to focus on other specific areas of preparation, involving resistance exercise, conditioning, speed work, etc.

Although yoga has been in existence for thousands of years, it is still fitting that elite-level athletes have begun looking deeper into the reasons that this ancient practice has stood the test of time. You don’t have to look far within professional sports to see yoga’s widespread popularity.

To speak in clearer terms directly related to physical preparation, this article talks about six critical components of training, and how yoga integrates into each of them. These six essential areas are strength, speed/power, flexibility/mobility, cardiovascular fitness/energy systems development, recovery, and mental/emotional well-being.

Strength

If strength is the maximal amount of force that you can apply against a load, then yoga is not necessarily the first thing that comes to mind to train strength. Strength coaches often use external load in the form of barbells and dumbbells, along with additional equipment to assist in a progressive resistance program. However, a missing link that yoga may provide is in the context of core strength, posture, and positioning.

Yoga properly instructs the holding of poses and “bracing” of the core. On top of that, most strength coaches agree that proper core bracing will help transfer loads better from prime movers to carry over to major compound lifts such as a squat or a deadlift. Yoga may not be the fastest way to get strong, but it can add value to a strength program.

Here are a few poses that will apply to strength building in isometric fashion:

Forearm Plank

This isometric anti-extension core position is essential for low back health, core strength, and spinal stability. According to Stuart McGill, Ph.D., a professor of spine biomechanics, repeated 10-second holds help create residual stiffness of the core. This stiffness of the core will help the more global muscles of the arms and legs transfer forces, leading to greater athletic performance.

Form:

• Maintain a neutral spine.
• Keep chin packed.
• Tighten your abdominals.
• Activate your glutes to keep a neutral pelvis

Forearm Side Plank

Another isometric core exercise, the Forearm Side Plank is essential in building stability and rigidness. Another key muscle engaged in the Side Plank is the quadratus lumborum, which plays a major role in alleviating back pain.

Form:

• Maintain a neutral spine.
• Keep chin packed.
• Engage your core and raise your hips to form a straight line from the feet to the head.

Crescent Lunge

This posture is accessible to most soccer players, and helps strengthen the glutes, quads, and hamstrings. When held, it also helps lengthen the hip flexor on the back leg. When an athlete holds this posture, it helps to encourage a more aligned lunge position like the one used in sprinting.

Form:

• Step one of your feet back about 3-4 feet, staying on the ball of your back foot and keeping your back fully extended.
• Bend your top knee, flexed to stack directly over your ankle and try to keep your thigh close to parallel with the ground.
• Extend arms overhead and slightly engage your core while maintaining a neutral spine.
• Hold the posture for 3-5 breath counts, or around 30-45 seconds.

Warrior Two

Another beginner-level pose, Warrior Two helps open up the muscles involved in frontal plane movements like the abductor and adductor muscles. You also engage the glute muscles, quads, and hamstrings in both legs.

Form:

• Set up in a wide stance.
• Keep your front toes pointed forward, while the back toes are at a roughly 90-degree angle.
• The front knee is directly over the ankle, and in line with the second and third metatarsal bones.
• Your shoulders remain over the hips.
• Hold the posture for 3-5 breath counts or around 30-45 seconds.

Warrior Three

Warrior Three uses strength across the whole posterior chain, including the hamstrings, calves, ankles, and back. Single leg balance is increased along with posture and full body coordination.

Form:

• Pressing your weight through one foot, start to lift the opposite leg back, drawing your full body parallel to the ground.
• Keep your top leg fully engaged with a slight bend in your knee and your shin remaining vertical.
• Hold the posture for 3-5 breath counts or around 30-45 seconds.

Chair Pose

The Chair Pose helps strengthen the muscles in the hips, knees, and ankles. You are able to properly settle in on contracting the glutes, quads, hamstrings, and calves when holding this position.

Form:

• Your feet are hip-width apart to ankles touching.
• Elevate your arms in the overhead position.
• Shift your hips back first, before bending the knees to lower your body.
• Posture muscles on the back keep the torso lifted as the lower body sinks down.
• Hold for 3-5 breaths or 30-45 seconds.

Speed/Power

Power is essential to soccer players and athletes in all sports. The variable of speed added with force applied to a load is often what separates great athletes from just good athletes. Training power is no one-size-fits-all mold in itself; however, most training programs work along the force/velocity (F/V) curve to train power.

Yoga can ultimately use body resistance to train on the lower ends of force and velocity shown in Figure 1 below (because of the slow speed and isometric holds.) Slower speeds and isometric holds allow for the time and conscious control needed to properly recruit groups of muscles instead of relying on our primary/global muscles, which tend to take over.

Speed is perhaps the most talked about training principle in all of sports. Once again, speed is improved through a holistic approach, working on a number of aspects together that make an athlete fast. Yoga is by no means going to make you a track star overnight; nevertheless, you can argue that proper body positioning plays a part in speed.

Flexibility/Mobility

Flexibility and mobility are two components that can be constantly worked on and that will pay massive dividends. If you have ever trained with soccer players, you know how important it is to be mobile in all directions. On top of that, the rate of soft tissue injuries originating at the hip (hamstrings, glutes, hip flexors, and adductors) is extremely high. Flexibility and mobility are not going to prevent all injuries in these areas; however, we have enough science to say that normal hip mobility, in conjunction with healthy flexibility, can help soccer players move more efficiently through a full range of motion. When turning to yoga for inspiration, there are poses that you can easily “steal” to add to your warmups and cool-downs for opening up the hips.

Some yoga poses to add mobility specific to soccer in warm-ups and cooldowns are:

Low Lunge

The Low Lunge is a great way to focus on the hip flexor group, including psoas and iliacus muscles. This area receives a lot of attention due to its importance in hip flexion and proper hip extension.

Form:

• Keep a neutral spine.
• Put your back knee down and behind your hip.
• Maintain a slight posterior pelvic tilt.
• Actively draw the back hip forward.

Lizard Lunge

The major benefit of this pose is the ability to mobilize the hip flexor group and the inner and outer hips.

Form:

• From push-up position, place a foot outside your hands.
• Keep your spine neutral with your hips square with the ground.
• Stay on the ball of your back foot, engaging quad and glute muscles and lengthening the hip flexors.
• Variations can include lowering on your forearms or drawing your top knee away from your body to stretch the outer hip. 

Pigeon Pose

Another hip opener, the Pigeon Pose helps increase external rotation of the hip on the front leg and lengthens the hip flexors on the back leg.

Form:

• Place your front shin down and close to parallel with the front of the mat.
• Make sure your spine stays neutral and lifted.
• Keep your hips squared off with your top shin.
• Your back thigh will point towards the floor and extend back.

Figure Four

Similar to the Pigeon, the Figure Four position helps lengthen the external rotators and abductors of the hip. This variation allows your spine to be neutral by remaining on the floor and places less stress on the knee than the Pigeon Pose.

Form:

• In a lying position, place one lateral ankle directly on the opposite knee.
• Hug behind the hamstring on the extended leg to bring the shin being stretched closer to your body.

Downward Dog

While activating your upper body, you also lengthen the whole backside of the body from the hips down, including hamstrings, calves, Achilles, and ankles.

Form:

• From a position on your hands and knees, start to lift your hips to the sky.
• Press firmly into your hands, drawing your head and chest through (and between) your arms.
• Allow your heels to draw down and back to help lengthen the hamstrings and calves.

Cardiovascular Fitness/Energy Systems Development

Soccer is all about variety when it comes to energy systems. A soccer match requires sprinting, jumping, and rapid change of direction(ATP-PC), and longer striding (glycolytic), with 90 minutes of constant moving and low-level activity (aerobic). Furthermore, soccer can have a pretty high demand on the cardiovascular system. With each training session and game requiring high bouts of intensity for up to two hours, stressing the higher energy systems outside of soccer is not always the best bang for your buck in season. In season, a foundational yoga practice can work as a low-level aerobic session without stressing the same joints and soft tissue as a light jog. In the offseason, you can utilize more of a cross-training effect by doing a faster-moving yoga practice, often dubbed “power yoga.” During a season or even on a heavier training day, you can still get an aerobic benefit from a foundational yoga class.

Here are three example metrics for recent heart rates during a foundational yoga practice (Figure 2), a powerful practice (Figure 3), and a soccer match (Figure 4).

This is a sample of a 38-minute yoga session with the participant wearing a heart rate monitor. With the heart rate peaking at 140 beats per minute and averaging just under 100 beats per minute, the cardiovascular system is working enough to elevate cardiac output without placing excessive stress on the system.

Right away, you can notice the difference in stress on the cardiovascular system with a different style of yoga practice. Power yoga requires more movement in harder poses that can elevate the heart rate. In terms of energy systems worked, most of the class targets the aerobic zone, with a few bouts that reach low-level anaerobic zones. Although the primary intentions of this class were not to specifically target the cardiovascular system, power yoga is a great way to experience the benefits of aerobic training without stressing any of the joints like you might with running. This is useful during a block of cross-training where you are trying to receive cardiovascular benefits while staying away from the soccer field.

This sample metric is a 90-minute soccer game, including half time. It shows an example of what your cardiovascular system goes through during a normal match. Your highest energy systems (ATP-PC/anaerobic) are being stressed constantly, which brings the highest amount of intensity to both your physical body and central nervous system. Because you are constantly exposed to this type of stressor, engaging in a more passive mode of exercise, like yoga, can really help complement the demands of a soccer match.

Recovery

There are more competitions, more travel, less time between competitions, and higher demands than ever in the sport of soccer. Recovery is a massive variable in both an individual’s and a team’s success. When battling fatigue and still trying to maintain fitness, everyone looks for new ways to recover.

Using examples from the world’s elite organizations, it is clear that the day after heavy competition is used as a recovery-focused day. On this day, players usually do some sort of “aerobic flush,” followed by a number of modalities to help recover the muscles, tendons, and joints. Beyond utilizing yoga as an aerobic flush on a recovery day, you can also utilize yoga-like movements in your immediate recovery after training sessions and/or competition.

Recovery Yoga Session

Sessions can include the use of yoga techniques that include breathing, calming music, and mental imagery, along with tailored postures and positions to assist players with recovery.

Mental/Emotional Well-Being

Perhaps one of the most neglected areas in sports is the psychosocial aspect within all teams. With all the sorts of daily stressors, meditation and relaxing techniques seem to be talked about with more regularity. Yoga’s attention to breathing techniques and bringing people to the present moment are some highly underestimated benefits for team sports. With mindset truly making or breaking top athletes, it is necessary that we begin to look at ways of improving this area.

Beyond the physical realm of yoga, some often-overlooked benefits can include:

• Increased focus
• Increased mental clarity
• Learning to detach from negative feelings/emotions
• Bringing intention, purpose, and motivation

Yoga: Simple, Timeless, and Easy to Implement

Enough information is available to show the benefits that yoga brings to the sport of soccer. Beyond that, players can take what they learn about yoga to develop a personal practice that may include breathing techniques on top of the physical poses that complement them best. Whether players are stiff, beaten up, or inflexible, they can take up yoga.

Yoga is simple and timeless, and makes a great complement to any training drills and exercises. Share on X

Ultimately, you will benefit by including yoga as a part of your program if you utilize it correctly. As the next off-season begins, you can certainly find ways to add in yoga to your program and shock your athletes’ systems. Like almost everything, starting something new can be difficult. However, with consistency, you will see results and decide for yourself as to yoga’s place within your training program. Depending on players’ time and energy, you may practice yoga two to three times weekly or just include 15 minutes’ worth of postures in your warm-up and/or cooldown. Different variations of the practice of yoga will only be a benefit.

Our world is full of technology, with all types of gadgets, gizmos, and “groundbreaking” training methods. Yoga is simple and timeless: It’s one of the oldest practices known to mankind and makes a great complement to your team sport or life. Not only will you see and/or feel the immediate benefit from a single session, you will also realize the lasting benefits that go along with a consistent yoga practice.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Perhaps the “safest” answer to the question of what contributes most to getting a sprinter to the finish line faster would be to say acceleration, max velocity, and speed endurance are all interconnected. Each makes an essential contribution as a specific point. You can’t get to top speed without accelerating, and you can’t sustain max velocity over multiple 10-meter segments without experiencing a decline in top end speed.

But what if you had to choose just one for the sake of argument? What would that be? And what if the debate then involved the insights of a respected biomechanist vs. the convictions of a highly successful high school track coach? Would their choice be the same?

In his book, Sports Biomechanics: The Basics, professor Anthony Blazevich asks the following question in the opening paragraph of his first chapter: “In a 200 meter race, who would most likely win, the athlete with the fastest acceleration or the athlete with the highest top speed?”

Chemistry teacher and track coach Tony Holler, of Plainfield North, would not hesitate in giving his opinion. However, before we get to that, let’s look at an interesting parallel issue that my SupportForce, Inc. partner, Barry Ross, presented 10 years ago.

A Tale of Two Sisters: Two Approaches to Training for Speed

In the blog post, “A Tale of Two Sisters: Finding Common Ground,” Ross profiled two sisters. He was coaching one of them at the time, and both were successful in their respective track events. Sasha was a short sprinter whose longest competitive race was the 400. Her best effort was a 14.13 in the 100 meter hurdles. Her younger sister, Tara, was a middle-distance runner with a best in the 800 of 2:11. The two had a chance to race head-to-head in the “outlier” race for both of them: the 400.

What would happen? Sasha’s focus in training was on short, high-speed efforts. Younger sister Tara trained for the 800 in a more conventional manner.

Ross compiled ASR (anaerobic speed reserve) data on both girls. Sasha’s 10 meter T1 test was a 1.09, and her top 300 meter T2 time was 40.5. Sasha’s top aerobic speed was 4.44 m/s, her anaerobic speed was 4.26 m/s, and her anaerobic speed reserve was 9.24 m/s.

Tara’s T1 10-meter fly was 1.20 and her 300 meter T2 best was 41.5. Her aerobic speed was 5.43 m/s, her anaerobic speed was 2.75 /m/s, and her anaerobic speed reserve was 8.38 m/s.

Tara was much slower in terms of anaerobic speed and anaerobic speed reserve, but had nearly a full 1 m/s faster aerobic capacity—not surprising for an 800 runner. From this data alone, you would suspect Tara would have the decided edge in the 400.

However, Ross looked more closely at what he suspected might be a key factor: Sasha’s 1.09 meter fly vs. Tara’s 1.20. Ross felt that her .11 second difference over 10 meters was enormous. For the fly’s 10-meter distance, she ran 10.17 m/s compared to Tara’s 8.3 m/s. Sasha’s 300 speed was 7.41 m/s, while Tara’s was 7.23 m/s. Calculating out to 800 meters, Tara has the advantage: 6.67 m/s compared to Sasha’s 6.14 m/s. But the race was the 400m, which was not the “preferred” event for either girl.

So, how would that head-to-head 400-meter race turn out? The ASR projection had Tara at 57.7 and Sasha at 58.2, but with a 3% margin of error in the algorithm, the results could be closer or farther apart. Ross did have his suspicions. After all, he once ran Alyson Felix head-to-head against the best 800 runner in their conference, and she won by a considerable margin.

An Agreement, Not a Debate

At this point, let’s jump back to Blazevich’s question about acceleration vs. top speed, which is interesting because his charts suggested that top speed was the critical factor. That would not surprise Tony Holler, who has always been adamant about the significance of training his cats to be fast: “Never will a 1.08 sprinter outperform a .98 sprinter if both are healthy. Usain Bolt ran the fastest 10-meter segment in human history: 0.81. Enough said.” 

Holler further emphasized the importance of top end speed: “By the way, the 4 x 400 is a sprint relay. Anyone who tells you otherwise is probably a distance coach and doesn’t understand sprinting.” 

These comments are worth considering relative to both Blazevich’s opening question, and what might happen when the 800 runner comes down to the 400. Blazevich based his conclusion on collecting data similar to what Ross did with the ASR speed regression algorithm. Blazevich looked at times over 50 meters to chart acceleration. He also looked at times between 50 and 150 meters to assess top speed, and times from 150 to 200 meters to analyze deceleration from fatigue. I used his approach in assessing one of my own sprinters.

So, what were Blazevich’s conclusions, what did I see in my analysis, and what was the answer he asked his readers to determine?

“The greatest improvement in running times are achieved by improving average speed, which is most affected by improvements in maximum running speed.”

After comparing the average speed and total times for running 200 meters, Blazevich explained his position, noting that “improving the maximum speed phase of the race by 3% has a more profound effect on the average speed, and therefore on the total time, than improving any other individual phase.”

Why? Blazevich saw the maximum speed phase being twice as long (100 meters) as the acceleration or deceleration phases (both 50 meters).

Therefore, what we end up with is an agreement and not a debate. The runner who improves average speed the most will run the fastest 200, and they can accomplish this best by improving their maximum running speed. And it appears that this might have some implications even for the 400. Holler’s response: “We get fast all year and then we train to hold our speed for up to 400 meters.”

But what really happened in the “Tale of Two Sisters” running the 400?

Max Speed Is the Key to Track Speed

The race was a photo finish. Tara ran 58.44 and Sasha ran 58.46. Ross chose this particular race because the 400 seemed to be common ground between more aerobic dominant races and more anaerobic dominant races. Both sisters were very competitive athletes, especially against each other.

Tara followed traditional middle-distance training protocols, while Sasha ran significantly shorter distances in training. For example, Sasha’s longest workout training distance was 55 meters. Her average high speed distance was a fly-in 25 meters, and the average number of reps per workout was five.

It is interesting that the ASR algorithm pretty much predicted what happened. And note at what race distance things began to change. You can also look at the last column in the chart to see what it projected Tara’s best time in the 800 might be.

I also found it interesting that the “meeting point” of the two athletes with different ASR profiles was 20 meters short of the 400-meter distance. Note that Sasha had the advantage up to that point. That’s important for those who believe that the “drop dead” type sprinters (100-200) can’t be competitive in the longer sprint race without more classical 400-meter training. It appears that it is very possible to run this race and deliver competitive times without having to resort to longer, intermediate paced workout runs.

Considering the unique nature of this challenge, and just how close the competitors were at the finish, I don’t believe the results dispute Holler’s overarching philosophy:

Max speed is the key to track speed. No other predictor comes close.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

• Banta, Ryan J. Sprinter’s Compendium Vervant Publishing, 2017
• Blazevich, Anthony J. Sports Biomechanics: the Basics: Optimising Human Performance. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013
• Ross, Barry. “A Tale of 2 Sisters: Finding Common Ground.” Bearpowered, 2008, www.bearpowered.com

What has happened to the posterior chain? Not too long ago, it was all the rage in the strength and conditioning industry, thanks in large part to Louie Simmons and his consistent feats of creating the strongest athletes on the planet. However, with long term athletic development now the new gold standard with today’s athlete, craftsmanship of the posterior chain seems to be a thing of the past—a fossil, forgotten.

The pendulum has swung too far in favor of athletes’ ‘show’ muscles over their ‘go’ muscles, says @huntercharneski. Share on X

I am not naïve enough to discount the importance of the anterior chain, as it is the “yin” to the posterior chain’s “yang,” but I do believe the pendulum has swung too far in favor of athletes’ “show” muscles. You win with what you cannot see, you win with what is behind you, and you most certainly win with a powerful set of “go” muscles. Having said that, let us set the mirror aside for now and walk through the progression model I use to aid the development of robust and resilient athletes on the quest for strength and speed.

Who Am I Serving?

Before I detail our plan, I have to preface it with the truth: I do not work with elite athletes. The athletes I am blessed to serve hope to bridge the gap between good and great. I share that for two reasons:

1. Athletes aged 8-18 years old can become drastically better with nearly any training method, system, or parameter.
2. Piggybacking off that, if you expect a never-before-seen, earth-shattering model for how I progress my athletes’ posterior chains, you will be radically disappointed. We perform the basics, with ruthless attention to detail.

I am lucky to serve a myriad of athletes: hockey, wrestling, tennis, you name it. The one commonality among all the athletes that darken our door is their burning desire for speed. However, they lack the driver (mechanics—specifically, upper body mobility), engine (posterior chain), tires (intermuscular coordination), and pit crew (competent coaches).

My Philosophy and the Plan

Our “philosophy” for the development and layering of the posterior chain may seem underwhelming to most readers, as we liken this model to a postage stamp—we stick to one thing until we get where we want to go. Depending on the quantitative or qualitative prescription, we either build muscle or movement. Particularly with qualitative prescription, it is not the “what” but the “how” that is of the utmost importance to us. The first progression model I detail is that of the dreaded hinge.

Hinge Progression

Building the Hinge is somewhat of a duality. We aim to cement a foundational movement pattern, as hinging can become bastardized quickly once we apply load. Having said that, we do need to overload the system in order to produce the horsepower needed (initially) for our athletes to go from 0-60 in no time. Fortunately for our athletes, they need not choose between “the ball and the sword,” as we provide both.

Hinge vs. Pipe

In my experience, athletes (especially youth) have tremendous difficulty differentiating between their hips and lower back. We have found success time and time again with the progression above, and the journey begins with an extremely sophisticated gadget—a PVC pipe.

The pipe provides phenomenal tactile feedback for the athlete, as it’s in constant contact with the head, spine, and coccyx. This allows the athlete to self-teach and correct before and during the movement’s execution, because if the pipe or body strays from the three points of contact, they are sure to fail.

Video 1. The pipe provides phenomenal tactile feedback for the athlete, as it’s in constant contact with the head, spine, and coccyx. This allows the athlete to self-teach and correct before and during the movement’s execution.

While the pipe takes care of everything above the waist, what strategy do we employ if the athlete, despite keeping spinal neutrality, wants to move vertically and not horizontally? We have found the following two options to be successful 100% percent of the time:

• Place a foam roller behind athlete and cue them to “knock” it over with their butt.
• Tell a story (with or without roller) of how they help their parents unload groceries from the car with their hands full of bags, and all they have left to do is shut the car door. Since both arms are full of groceries, how are they going to shut the car door? By pushing back with their butt.

Do not fall for the sucker’s choice and underestimate the value of this Level 1 movement. As coaches, we tend to progress too quickly based not on the athlete’s level of engagement, but our own. Coaches will typically get bored before an athlete ever comes close. Let us take our own advice and trust the process. Athletes typically perform this movement for a minimum of four weeks before we progress to Level 2. 

Don’t progress too quickly based on your own level of engagement instead of the athlete’s, says @huntercharneski. Share on X

Band Pull-Throughs

Our Level 2 movement in the hinge progression may seem extremely elementary at first glance, and believe me, I felt the same initially. Most other camps (if this movement is in their repertoire) utilize a weighted cable, but due to my facility’s operational and financial restrictions, we had to resort to an elastic band. Technology is never in short supply in our system (sarcasm).

Athlete after athlete, rep after rep, I began to feel affinity for this movement. Truth be told, even if I did have access to a weighted cable tower now, I would still use the elastic band. Why? The band serves as a form of accommodating resistance, where the “weight” increases (band stretches) as the athlete engages their glutes and extends her hips. Conversely, when the resistance is at its relative maximum, it is easier for the athlete to hinge backwards as the band literally “pulls” her hips. In short, the feedback the band provides makes this movement accessible because:

• The resistance is highest at the beginning or “top” of the movement, allowing the athlete to feel her hips move horizontally, resulting in performing a flawless hinge.
• The resistance is lowest while the athlete is in the hinge position, allowing her to forcefully push her hips forward without having to overcome substantial “load.” A cue that works for us time and time again is for the athlete to “race” the band to the top.

One common issue we see with this movement is that, as the athlete pushes her hips back and perfects the hinge, her toes leave the floor. I don’t know about you, but the ground is a piece of real estate we like our athletes to have a relationship with; it is their personal force-plate—use it!

Having said that, when this happens, we cue the athlete to “curl” their big toes into the ground. This accomplishes two things:

• She feels her whole foot on the ground—
• By curling her big toe into the ground, she also accesses substantially more glute activation while extending her hips. Try it, I dare you—

Video 2. The band serves as a form of accommodating resistance, where the “weight” increases (band stretches) as the athlete engages her glutes and extends her hips. Conversely, when the resistance is at its relative maximum, it is easier for the athlete to hinge backwards as the band literally “pulls” her hips.

Band pull-throughs are timeless, can serve a myriad of athletes regardless of sport or training age, and can be utilized at any point in a coach’s periodization plan. This movement can be prescribed with triphasic applications, dynamic effort, or just “greasing the groove” to cement this pattern. Of course, there is the concept of overload, which is where we progress into Levels 3 and 4. 

Kettlebell & Barbell RDL

Only after our athletes display extreme ownership and proficiency in Level 2 will we place an external load in their hands. Enter an “oldie but goodie” with the RDL. This is where the progression begins to shift from movement to muscle, and we begin crafting the engine with Levels 3 and 4. Again, our series is nowhere near revolutionary; we simply overload the athlete to maintain a highly adaptive state.

Our cue quiver varies only slightly with these two variations, but the setups are almost identical:

• Tall and tight (cue them to be somewhere between a “sad dog” and “macho man”).

• “Soften” the knees (unlock).
• Make a “double chin” to keep head in line with spine.
• Breathe and brace.

As the movement begins with horizontal displacement, that is when our cueing begins to differ:

Kettlebell

• Drop the bell between the shoelaces.
• (If they want to “pull” or bend their arms.) Our hands are just “hooks.”

Barbell

• Curl the wrists under (prevents “throttling” of the bar).
• (If the bar begins to stray from their body.) The bar is a paintbrush; “paint” your legs.

To ensure a forceful lockout, we have found success with “squeeze the penny,” an external cue meaning there is a penny between the athlete’s butt cheeks. Hey, we work with kids. External cues (no matter how strange) get the job done.

One common issue we see every now and then (especially with barbells) is the athlete’s spine beginning to resemble the “sad dog”—as the photo above depicts—as the barbell approaches the knee. To rectify this, we have almost exclusively employed a snatch-grip when programming the barbell RDL. The wider hand placement allows the athlete to push his hips back more efficiently, rather than feeling the weight “pull” him out of the groove.

As this process plan goes on, you will notice Levels 3 and/or 4 have the briefest descriptions or rationales. This is because, as I mentioned, it is simply overload at this point in the process, and the foundation (Levels 1 and 2) matters most. A pyramid is only as tall as its base, so let the drill do the talking and the athlete do the walking.

Deadlift Progression

The Hinge Progression’s focus was two-sided, as we aimed to develop proper movement, but also sprinkled in some overload to keep eliciting positive change and build some “go.” The Deadlift Progression’s focus is much narrower: muscle.

Deadlift Patterning with Band

We want to build an engine capable of spectacular force production, and Level 1 kicks off that process nicely by teaching the athlete to extend her hips violently, while also subconsciously developing the proper arm mechanics needed for sprinting by driving her hands down, not back. This will create vertical displacement when we get her to upright running. Win.

Video 3. This exercise is a favorite of mine to teach as it requires a high level of interaction between athlete and coach.

The order of cues that has worked when teaching this movement are:

1. Sit in a chair.
2. Arms like Superman.
3. Squeeze your armpits.
4. Squeeze the penny.

The band provides excellent tactility for staying “tall and tight” as discussed earlier. After at least a month with this exercise and an upgrade in bands resistance-wise, Level 2 won’t pose a problem. The athlete will be more than capable of moving the weight vertically without straying from the way.

Kettlebell Deadlift

Do not undervalue this exercise. I will say that again, do not undervalue this exercise. The Kettlebell Deadlift is not merely a placeholder between Levels 1 and 3, but a wonderful expression of force around the athlete’s center of mass.

This movement is excellent for developing an intimate relationship between athlete and floor, as it is rare that one of my athletes can execute this movement from the floor on Day 1. Our “to-the-floor” layer is as follows:

• KB Deadlift + two Mats – four weeks
• KB Deadlift + one Mat – four weeks
• KB Deadlift from floor

Now, you don’t need me to tell you that we do not train robots. The nice and neat four-week layers are not set in stone; we rely on the best coaching tool we have—our eyes—when determining whether (or not) to progress an athlete.

Do not undervalue the Kettlebell Deadlift, says @huntercharneski. Share on X

The mats serve not only as a mediator between athlete and floor, but also as a source of extrinsic motivation. In my environment, we may have 15 youth athletes at one time, and several have “earned the right” to pull the bell from the floor. A young person becomes extremely motivated by her peers: as the mat provides extrinsic motivation to work towards the floor, she becomes intrinsically motivated to “earn the right” as well. Did I mention not to undervalue this exercise?

The “problem” we encountered with this exercise was determining when to progress an athlete to Level 3—the Trap Bar Deadlift. How do we objectively determine this? I am not sure if we can, but we decided to employ Dr. Yessis’ 1×20 method in order for a young person to bridge the gap from bell to bar. If the athlete can pull our heaviest bell, weighing 88 pounds, for one set of 20 reps at a 212 tempo, he will have “earned the right” to step into the Trap Bar.

My rationale behind this is not sexy. I just fell back to the size principle, in which slower twitch fibers are recruited initially and, as the set progresses and fatigue onset begins, the faster Type IIB fibers are called upon to execute the remainder of the set. If the athlete can prove to me that he can handle a progression from lower to higher intensity, combat fatigue, and maintain focus all in one set, he has my endorsement for Level 3. If you have a better way, feel free to let me know, but this is what has worked for us. 

Trap Bar Deadlift

This movement has been catching a lot of flak lately in the S&C community. I am not one to say it is perfect by any means; all I know is what I know. What I know is the athletes in my environment benefit immensely from this final installment in our deadlift progression.

I believe one reason for the flak it has caught is because many coaches and athletes bastardize the Trap Bar Deadlift by making it no different than a squat, with the bar in their hands as the lone differentiator. If properly coached and executed, this movement is hip dominant, leaving the quads out of it. The only argument I can imagine for keeping it quad-dominant is that an athlete’s quads are working harder during acceleration than the posterior chain. This is true, I won’t argue that, but my priority is building more horsepower, not torque.

Video 4. If treated as a hinge and not a knee-flexion exercise, the Trap Bar Deadlift is a valuable tool in any coach’s exercise pool. Unfortunately, it is too often coached and executed no differently than a squat.

Aside from the athlete’s learning curve from bell-to-bar, fatigue is the only issue I have with Level 3. Conversing with and observing the athletes is critical, as any time we use our hands to “grip” something, neural fatigue becomes a very real thing. It can lead to overtraining and possibly injury, as form is often the first to decay. As JL Holdsworth has said, “That which has the potential to do great good, also has the potential to do great harm.”

Knee Flexion/Extension Progression

When I laid out the progression for knee flexion/extension, I had one thing in mind: sprinting (surprise, surprise). As the Hinge Progression focused mainly on building muscle, or the athletes’ engines, we focus our attention now on the tires (movement), or more specifically, the athletes’ intermuscular coordination. More digestibly, the vigorous relationship between the agonists and antagonists.

In my opinion, and in the opinion of many coaches smarter than me, for hamstring development to best aid in speed, three non-negotiable qualities must be met:

1. High movement velocity/frequency
2. Violent alternating flexion and extension
3. Hamstring is stretched under load of eccentric phase, not concentric

Partner CHG

Many in the industry refer to this movement as Glute Ham Raise or GHR, but leave it to me to be the rebel, as there is an important piece that is missing in the common title—the calves! Calf Ham Glute is what we call this partnered exercise. Care to guess why? Didn’t think so.

Video 5. This is about as general as it gets in terms of hamstring development to aid in speed. There is low movement velocity and zero alternation of flexion and extension, but the athlete’s hamstrings are stretched under load during the eccentric. This exercise is valuable in the off-season and for injury prevention.

This exercise’s contraction is eccentric only, not because we are sick and sadistic with our athletes, but because:

• We are building general strength qualities, something they do not yet possess. I have yet to see a novice perform a perfect Nordic curl in our environment.
• The prolonged eccentric re-lengthens and remodels the tissue, having a positive influence on injury prevention.

In order for an exercise to be worthy of our exercise “pool,” it needs to meet the following criteria: safe, economical, efficient. The Partner CHG passes with flying colors on all three, especially in economy. It requires zero equipment, just another organism (I couldn’t help myself; had to throw that buzzword in there), which is never an issue at my facility as it is 100% group training sessions.

For us, as coaches, to consider an athlete’s execution of the Partner CHG a success, three things need to be displayed with optimal proficiency:

1. Straight line, head-to-knee (this is not a razor curl).
2. Glute performs an isometric contraction—squeeze the penny!
3. A 3-5 second eccentric contraction, as the athlete “lets the floor come to her.”

While this may be one of the most “foolproof” exercises known to humanity, even the Partner CHG is not immune to mistakes and errors. If the athlete performing the movement is unable to display any sort of eccentric control, we again utilize an incredibly advanced piece of equipment – the elastic band. The accommodating assistance of the band helps his descent to resemble “falling” into foam, rather than crashing to the earth like a sack of potatoes.

Val Slide Leg Curls

In Level 2, we reincorporate the concentric component, and the athletes are so “thankful” we do so. The Val Slide Leg Curl is our Level 1 turned upside down, as the athlete’s upper back and head are now cemented to the ground, while the legs have more degrees of freedom. The same muscles are recruited (calf, ham, glute), and by dorsiflexing the feet we incorporate the calves, especially during the concentric phase. We call upon the glutes once again via isometric contraction for the movement’s duration. (Level 1 and 2 are great forms of fascial raking, because we “wake up” down-regulated glutes, as our athletes are also students who literally sit all day). Lastly, the hamstrings now move “freely” through all three contraction types, eliciting encouraging adaptation for the trainee.

The only issue we run into with Val Slide Leg Curls is the athlete lacking the general strength to hold himself “up” in order to execute the movement properly. Now, I’m no master of movement, and in my environment one thing you learn to stomach quickly is the question, “What level of imperfection are you OK with?” With that, I have no problem allowing an athlete to drive his elbows into the ground so he can then access the full range of motion needed to execute the exercise.

“Load it…explode it!” is a cue you will hear time and time again as our athletes execute Level 2. We encourage a controlled (not slow) eccentric component, followed by a concentric contraction with some violence to back it up. In the Knee Flexion/Extension Progression, the main focus is to get the athletes moving from slow to fast, as the ultimate goal is the expression of high force at high velocity (i.e., sprinting). This is followed by Level 3. 

Seated Band Leg Curls

We now begin to assemble (somewhat) the qualities needed for the athletes to run fast by incorporating high-movement velocity and alternating flexion/extension. At first glance, this exercise may seem easier, or even elementary, compared to Levels 1 and 2. As coaches, we must remember we need to get these youngsters strong first, before they can display their strength quickly (which is essentially what is performed in Level 3).

With the athlete seated on a bench or box and facing the rack or wherever the band is fastened, cue her to forcefully flex and extend her legs by likening it to “flicking a light switch ON and OFF as quickly as possible.” It seems simple enough, right? Often, two key elements of this exercise get overlooked:

1. The athlete’s posture: If her back is as crooked as a question mark, you need to address it. Posture is first on my sprinting “checklist.”
2. The athlete’s toes: If her toes are lax, or even worse—plantar flexed—cue her to “bring her toes to her shins,” as this will engage the calf in this exercise. More importantly, her ankles will be stiff, not gooey, when she strikes the ground when sprinting.

Sprinting – The Timeless Modality

Newsflash: If you are an athlete at our facility, you will sprint—a lot. I will spare you the benefits of sprinting, as you can surely find that in any other piece I have written and it is beyond the scope of this article. In terms of posterior chain development, is there a better option than sprinting? High force, high velocity, fast alternation of flexion and extension, and it is not bilateral.

While the athletes at my facility will undoubtedly accelerate and sprint during their progression from Levels 1 to 3, it is only to make sprinting more tolerable and decrease their “effort,” as sprinting should be a relaxed endeavor. Al Vermeil once told me, “It is not how fast you can contract, it is how fast you can relax.”

At this stage of the game, we have built an engine, and we have provided an excellent set of tires to “move more freely” with a high RPM.

Upper Body Posterior Chain Progression

I must preface the upper body segment by bringing awareness to the fact that the majority of the athletes we work with are of the team sport variety. You may be wondering what that has to do with anything. This is prudent to note because we aim to provide the optimal, not maximal, amount of muscle.

Again, why does this matter? it matters because the goal is speed, and if we pack on too much muscle, sprinting mechanics will deteriorate because the increased muscularity will diminish the degrees of freedom needed to express high force at high velocity. If the lower body is the engine, the upper body is the driver, and the posterior shoulder’s swing action orchestrates the symphony of projection from the waist down.

Video 6. This is a phenomenal Level 1 movement for beginners. As is often the case with young athletes, the “reaching” portion of the movement gets them out of extension as the scapula glides forward.

Video 7. We employ this movement to not only achieve upward/downward rotation, but elevation/depression as well through reaching. This is a staple in our chin-up progression.

Of course, these are team sport athletes we are talking about, so we do overload and progress the levels in order to elicit an appropriate level of hypertrophy and strength necessary to protect them. To continually overload with reckless abandon becomes detrimental to the athlete for the reasons stated before. Remember, posterior chain is the “go” not the “show,” which is why all but one exercise across all three categories uses the athlete’s own body or an elastic band. The fastest athletes I work with all have great relative strength.

I could dissect each category and level for the upper body posterior chain progression, but that simply wouldn’t be realistic, as 95% of our athlete population never makes it past Level 1 or 2. However, regardless of category, the progression (or lack thereof) from level to level must be done with an extreme amount of discipline and fortitude. The majority of athletes I work with have never seen Level 2 in shoulder stability. Why not? That’s the wrong question—why do I need to progress them if they: a) are getting stronger; b) have hypertrophied; and c) have unrestricted range of motion? Movement > Muscle.

Final Thoughts on Applying Posterior Chain Training

I work primarily with young athletes. What is their greatest need, or want? Ask anyone between eight and 18 years old, and they will tell you they wish to become faster. Speed is king. What problems are they facing? Whether it is their coach, their teammates competing for playing time, or the opposition, the external enemy is easy to identify.

While these external enemies don’t stand a chance, I am more concerned with the internal enemy: the athlete’s confidence, or lack thereof. An athlete shouldn’t have to question herself or her abilities, which is exactly why I take great pride in the crafting of the posterior chain.

This #PosteriorChain progression plan gifts the athlete with a powerful set of ‘go’ muscles, says @huntercharneski. Share on X

Is the anterior chain important? No question. Are other training modalities important? No question. Do we take time to address other aspects of training, leaving no stone unturned? No question. But we have been where they are. By giving them this plan, we gift them a powerful set of “go” muscles, transforming them from Ford Bronco to Ferrari on their journey to success, and helping them avoid potholes on the way.

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Most literature defines strength as the ability to produce force by muscular contraction. Newton’s first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest unless a force is placed upon it. For instance, my cup of tea will not move unless I push against it. This law refers to inertia, which is essentially an object’s reluctance to move.

Newton’s second law of motion, referring to the acceleration of an object, states that force is a product of mass (kg) and acceleration (meter/second). Finally, Newton’s third law states: “For every action, there is an equal reaction.” For this, imagine a baseball player or cricketer catching a ball. Unless they want their teeth caved in, they apply a force against the ball to prevent any further negative work.

Now, imagine this principle during the bench press. To overcome the gravity of a significant mass, we apply a greater quantity of force to the barbell. This is an example of positive work. Recently, a golf coach highlighted the importance of the third law in his sport during a conversation. In theory, if a golfer can apply more force against the floor, the clubhead velocity that they can generate should be greater. With more velocity, as well as other technicalities, the ball should travel further.

Verkhoshansky and Siff refer to strength as having two divisions: structural and functional.¹ Structural training is the process of affecting the musculature itself, such as an increase in actin and myosin filaments as a result of heavy strength training. Generally, structural training serves the purpose of inducing hypertrophy, whether it is myofibrillar, where an increase in the density of fibers is evident, or sarcoplasmic, where cellular cytoplasm increases. Functional adaptations are the products of training that are then expressed during sports performance: for instance, strength-speed. While it may seem obvious that understanding the purpose of training is imperative before programming, there is a distinct difference between the two in terms of the variables of load, sets, reps, rest, and variation.

Fortunately, and certainly more recently, coaches and parents alike have “succumbed” to the premise that physical ability is not the sole contributor to performance. It is the most likely to change the outcome on the field, court, or track, or in the pool but, without addressing the more holistic elements, there is a chance that athletes work at 70%. Coaches are mainly full-time strength and conditioning practitioners, but also part-time (bordering on full-time) life coaches.

Types of Strength

There is more to strength than what we see when a powerlifter grinds a 475-pound deadlift. That would be a case of absolute strength, which is the maximum amount of tension and force applied to an object, irrespective of mass. You just get that weight up and hope that you do not pass out.

Absolute Strength

Absolute strength refers to the level of effort (load lifted) with no relation to body mass. Where absolute strength is trained, the load is going to be at 1RM.

Relative Strength

Whereas absolute strength does not consider body mass, relative strength does. Generally, you can calculate relative strength by dividing your body mass by your 1RM.

Speed-Strength

With speed-strength, there is a tendency for players and coaches alike to believe that they are training power. While there is a fine line between the two qualities, speed-strength still requires a significant amount of force in order to overcome the load on the bar. But, having said that, the load on the bar is ultimately irrelevant if performance on the field of play does not improve. So, a better definition of speed-strength is the physical ability to generate high force and do so at high velocity, hence the confusion with power.³ Generally speaking, speed-strength can be trained within the 80-90% range of 1RM.

Specific Strength

As the principle of specificity suggests, specific strength refers to the motor skills required to perform a particular sporting movement. In essence, specific strength is the force that is capable of being exerted during sport skills, or imposed on somebody, as in the case of rugby. Many coaches will likely program specific strength phases as the general preparation period (GPP) approaches its conclusion.

The work of Frans Bosch focuses on the specific and often highly complex nature of sport skills. The motor pattern refers to the movement required, whereas the sensorimotor ability involves internal sensory input, such as muscle tension (slack). Therefore, it seems that specific strength training should not simply attempt to mimic the sporting movement but incorporate the sensorimotor demands.⁴

There are many resources regarding specific strength, none more useful than the original Special Strength Training (Verkhoshansky). However, a coach’s knowledge and, importantly, their understanding of their sport are both invaluable when considering specific strength training. A lot of research, while useful, is performed by scientists within a controlled environment.

A coach’s knowledge and understanding of their sport are invaluable for specific strength training, says @JamyClamp. Share on X

This is where a deep understanding of the sport that the coach works in is paramount. I will use the “jackal” position as an example from rugby. Done with precision and aggression, it is one of the most valuable assets to possess on the rugby field. Besides practicing the position during rugby training, players can supplement it with exercises performed in the weight room. However, that requires an understanding of the demands and experience with “jackaling.”

Why Strength Training?

It is correctly stated that strength alone does not mean that the player is more competent on the field. Having a standard of strength means that they are in a position to lift more with, hopefully, a greater velocity. The ultimate goal is for that player to make use of their weight room ability to affect the execution of their sports skills. 

Does training lead to a better performance during the game or event? 

If the answer is no, it is essential to address why.

Power

Power requires strength. After all, power is the product of force and velocity. Now, just because an athlete is strong, it does not mean they will naturally be able to realize that strength in the form of power. Genetic makeup can dictate an awful lot in terms of muscle fiber types, tendon lengths, and body types, to name a few. Anaerobic power ability is more difficult to train than aerobic endurance ability. Mitochondrial density is relatively quick to increase. However, it is more taxing to alter the characteristics of a muscle and motor unit.

Strength Endurance

Strength endurance is the ability to produce and exert force over a prolonged period of time. There is an element of damage limitation with this strength quality because it is accepted that force will not be as significant as it is during low repetition training, but the goal is to maintain force output.

Production of Force

Rate of force development (RFD) is essentially what coaches improve and maintain. To increase RFD, the amount of force (ma) needs to increase, while reducing the time taken to displace an object. Broadly put, to improve RFD, it is only beneficial to train with greater loads (kg) and higher velocities; hence the popularity of velocity-based training (VBT).

As we sprint, the generated force is exerted into the ground. These forces are also known as ground reaction forces. In the case of sprinting, force is applied both vertically, resulting in flight time, and horizontally, resulting in meters gained. To run at speed, we have to minimize time spent in the air, as it is essentially time misspent, and maximize horizontal force. In short, there are a number of potential factors that contribute towards force production, none more prominent than neural drive and muscle architecture.

Reduction of Force

With force reduction, it is essentially a matter of being able to tolerate work around the musculoskeletal system. The premise of robustness largely centers on this quality because, simply put, if a player struggles to maintain a degree of postural integrity upon impact, they will likely find themselves with a problem. However, it is obviously unrealistic to expect a player to maintain “perfect” posture. I find the concept of robustness problematic because, ultimately (and funnily enough), the body is quite a rigid structure.

Landing mechanics also involve force reduction. A go-to example is the young player that has a relatively powerful vertical jump. However, that same player struggles to control their landing, as their ankles roll and their knees come together. To complement the more concentric, explosive action, it is important to be able to control the eccentric movement. An athlete’s training maturity, strength training, and time spent practicing landings will likely improve their ability to land efficiently. Interestingly, the collision that occurs during plyometric exercise, such as depth jumps, can contribute towards ossification.⁵ A mechanical load that is compressive in nature essentially generates the neurological impulses that stimulate the elicited adaptation.

Stabilization of Force

To explain stabilization, I have not encountered a better analogy than: “Can you shoot a cannon from a canoe?” You might be able to, but you would likely end up in the drink and your intended target would likely breeze on by. Therefore, being stable and in control of our movement lends itself to a more efficient utilization of force. For example, during the stance phase as the foot progresses from touch-down to mid-stance to take-off, the ankle absorbs a large amount of force. If the ankle becomes unstable, generally through pronation or supination, force is being lost. Generating force is an extremely valuable athletic quality; however, if stability is not present, that same quality is undervalued.

The Three General Determinants of Strength

Determinants of strength are essentially factors that contribute towards this physical quality. Broadly, they include central (nervous system) and peripheral (muscular system) contributors. However, strength involves a little more than simply increasing the cross-sectional area (CSA) of a muscle. Generally, there are three categories that will contribute towards, and determine, strength: biomechanical, physiological, and psychological.

The 3 general determinants of strength are #biomechanical, #physiological, and #psychological factors, says @JamyClamp. Share on X

Biomechanical Determinants of Strength

Forces are quantified within two categories: vector and scalar. Definitions of each can be found below.

• Vector: Magnitude (force production) with a specific direction (horizontal or vertical).
• Scalar: Magnitude (force production) without a specific direction.

As we apply force to an external object, such as the garden plot or a player on the rugby field, it is a vector because it has a direction. A mass is scalar, because it’s lazy and, without anyone pushing it, it stays still. As the Joker says; “All it needs is a little push.” By understanding that strength and force is essential if we wish to move objects with speed and efficiency, the importance of the component is further highlighted.

Force Velocity

The force-velocity curve (FVC) falls within biomechanical determinants. Where force (N) is high, velocity (m/s) is low. Conversely, where force is low, velocity is likely greater. The types of force production, such as power and maximal strength, are placed throughout the curve. Power is often viewed as the “holy grail” of performance. It is shown to be sandwiched between strength-speed, where the magnitude of the lift is still quite slow but the force is relatively high, and speed-strength, whereby the velocity is noticeably greater. For the sake of generality, the main purpose of understanding the force-velocity relationship is to try to shift the curve towards the right.

Leverage

Biomechanics is “the area of science concerned with the analysis of mechanics of human movement.”⁶ Ultimately, the length of our limbs can control a fraction of the lifts performed in the weight room. A taller individual, with a long femur, then has the task of pulling a load further to lockout, but the length of our limbs cannot be changed unless we take to them with a piece of sandpaper. Mechanically, it is a matter of adjusting according to the individual because they must make the most of their mechanics.

Physiological Determinants of Strength 

Broadly, physiological determinants include central (nervous system) and peripheral (muscular system) factors. Central determinants are largely centered on the adaptation or, in some cases, the temporary maladaptation of the nervous system. Conversely, peripheral determinants tend to involve changes in the architecture of the muscle.

Muscle Architecture

As the saying goes, “a larger muscle is more likely to exert greater force.” In practical terms, more forceful muscles tend to be larger muscles, but this is dependent on the type of training performed. A bodybuilder might have larger musculature than a powerlifter, but which individual generally lifts greater weight?

Aagard et al.⁷ monitored the response of human pennate muscle, which run parallel to their associative tendon, to a 14-week heavy strength training regime. Training load varied from three to ten repetition maximums (RM), until the latter weeks (10-14 weeks), where ranges varied between four and six RM. To summarize their study, the CSA of type 1 muscle fibers was not statistically significant, but that does not mean it was time wasted.

I look at #fatigue as a crossover between physiological and psychological determinants for strength, says @JamyClamp. Share on X

Linking back to structural training, it is the rep and set ranges that largely determine the effect that lifting has on muscle architecture. Training at 85-100% of a rep max is within the myofibrillar hypertrophy range; however, there will likely be the potential benefit of increased density. Conversely, as intensity increases and volume decreases (high rep/low set), loads used are usually much less in relation to %1RM.

Further to muscle architecture, it is well-known that endurance-based athletes are likely to be dominant in type 1 fibers, with slow twitch characteristics. Type 1 fibers produce less force, but they are capable of producing force over a prolonged period of time. Therefore, they lend themselves to strength-endurance training. Opposite to these, fast twitch fibers generate much larger levels of force. The dominance of particular fiber types progresses nicely into the way that genetics maintain a pivotal role in strength.

Genetics

Much the same as our leverage potential, genetics are an element of performance that cannot be altered, or at least not cheaply or quickly. We can only make use of the ingredients that we have in season, so we must strive to optimize the product. Numerous products exist that allow for genotyping and, fortunately, I have completed a DNA test. As my knowledge does not yet extend far enough into the depths of genotypes, there a number of standout genes that could have an influence on strength.

Alpha-actinin-3 (ACTN3) is associated with filament sliding velocity⁸; therefore, a deficiency in this particular gene could reduce power-generating potential. To elaborate, Yang et al. studied the difference in allele frequency (ACNT3) between power (n=46) and endurance (n=194) athletes. They found variations amongst the two categories of athletes, although not significant, that promoted the athletic quality in which they competed. Essentially, if there is the luxury of genotyping, it is useful, but ultimately, we can generally tell if someone is likely to be power or endurance dominant—the “eyeballing” analysis. 

Endocrinology

Hormones are the mediators of the large majority of human processes. A significant fluctuation in hormonal balance can have detrimental effects either way. Hormones can be broadly categorized as being either anabolic, constructing, or catabolic, destructing. In the anabolic group, there are the infamous pair of testosterone and growth hormone, and their derivatives. Most noticeably, cortisol—also known as the “stress hormone”—is labelled catabolic. Epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline (for the British among us), respond almost immediately to strength training, as we strive to produce greater force.⁹

It is important to understand that endocrinology is not all lab coats and suspicious scientists. The hormonal response to training is critically important and the benefits can be obvious.

Fatigue

I look at fatigue as a crossover between physiological and psychological, and my opinion is substantiated by physiologist Tim Noakes. The typical indicators of fatigue are undeniable: hydrogen accumulation, due to lactate not being utilized as a fuel, causing the “burn”; a loss of homeostatic control; an increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide within arterial blood; and glycogen depletion, which reduces ATP turnover.¹⁰ They are some, but not all, of the potential physiological culprits behind fatigue. Psychologically, the Central Governor Mode suggests that fatigue is subconsciously controlled in order to prevent a “catastrophic” decline in performance. Essentially, we are naturally offering our best attempt at controlling homeostasis.

Psychological Determinants of Strength

While strength is primarily a physical component of performance, psychology will often play a pivotal role in the expression of the quality. To gain the full benefits of strength training, every element of a session needs to be executed with intensity, commitment, and effort.

Motivation

Exerting force against a heavy object to prevent it from crushing us irrefutably involves a reasonable amount of effort. So naturally, at a particular moment in time, motivation has a significant role in the expression of strength in the weight room. I am sure we have all experienced training days where we know, after our first set, that we will likely be “embracing the grind,” as opposed to pressing and pushing like a knife through butter. This is where a coach earns a percentage of their bacon because, at times, it is just not sensible to adapt the session based on the player’s current condition, and this is hugely important because being stubborn and ignoring potential signs of fatigue is negligible.

Motivation has a significant role in the expression of strength in the weight room, says @JamyClamp. Share on X

A point where technology and motivation join forces is through the use of velocity-based training. Essentially, VBT provides knowledge of performance feedback on a rep-by-rep basis. Granted, an athlete who is relatively experienced in the weight room is likely to acknowledge when they are fatiguing but, with VBT, there is an objective measure that clarifies the issue. Linking back to motivation, sportspeople are largely innately competitive breeds, so a challenge to maintain or increase their velocity is valuable, as long as it is kept under control.

Intent to Lift

The hard-nosed coaches will likely bang the drum to this and I’m not saying it is wrong to attempt to ignite or, in some cases, reignite the fire. The intent that an athlete has to lift plays a pivotal role in the training outcome. But if there is a lack of intent during training, does it not seem logical to ask why? The boot camp “shouty shouty” approach might work for some, but I’ve found it often makes matters worse. As the cycle of performance contributors shows, strength is not just lifting big. As soon as we treat the athletes we work with like weightlifting robots, we lose ground. Take the time to understand why they are not lifting with intent because, if you understand their “why,” you can coach far more effectively.

‘Here, There and Everywhere’ Athletes

They are fired up and willing to crack their head against another player’s hip at speed, but they then simply exist, and cruise in neutral, during strength training. While it may be frustrating for the coach, it is not uncommon, so again, provide a “why” and highlight how the training will benefit them on the field both in the short term and, perhaps more importantly in the coach’s eye, in the long term.

Personality

“High-wired characters tend to suit high-wired sports.” (Nick Newman) I accept that this statement is a slight generalization. However, I think it runs true most of the time. Picture the start line before the 100-meter dash. Now, picture the start line before the 1500-meter run. I have noticed significant differences, and a coach can learn a lot from the personality of an athlete, and manage their approach. However, you should never cage athletes because of their personality characteristics. It is a balancing act.

Strength: An Important Ingredient, but Not the Only Ingredient

Overall, strength is a critical part of performing and doing so with efficiency, as well as doing it on a regular basis. Hopefully, there is an understanding that it is not a “deal breaker” in the sense that, without great maximal strength, a career will be washed away. Strength is a part of the recipe, but there are other ingredients required to bake a nice cake.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Verkhoshansky, Y. and Siff, M. 2009. “Supertraining.” 6th ed. Verkhoshansky SSTM; Rome.
2. Stone, M., O’Bryant, H., Garhammer, J., McMillan, J., and Rozenek, R. 1982. “A Theoretical Model of Strength Training.” NSCA Journal. 36-39.
3. Bompa, T. and Haff, G. 2009. “Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training.” Human Kinetics: Champaign.
4. Bosch, F. 2015. “Strength Training and Coordination: An Integrative Approach.” 2010 Publishers: Rotterdam.
5. Ohashi, N., Robling, A., Burr, D., and Turner, C. 2002. “The Effects of Dynamic Axial Loading on the Rat Growth Plate.” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 17 (2), 284-292.
6. The British Association of Sport and Exercise Science. (Online). BASES. Available at: http://www.bases.org.uk/Biomechanics
7. Aagard, P., Andersen, J., Poulsen-Dyhre, P., Leffers-Mette, A., Wagner, A., Magnusson, P., Kristensen-Halkjaer, J., and Simonsen, E. 2001. “A mechanism for increased contractile strength of human pennate muscle in response to strength training: changes in muscle architecture.” Journal of Physiology. 534 (2) 613-623.
8. Yang, N., MacArthur, D., Gulbin, J., Hahn, A., Beggs, A., Easteal, S., and North, K. 2003. ACTN3 “Genotype is Associated with Human Elite Athletic Performance.” American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (3) 627-631.
9. Kraemer, W. and Ratamess, N. 2005. “Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training.” Sports Medicine. 35 (4) 339-361.
10. Noakes, T. 2007. “The Central Governor Model of Exercise Regulation Applied to the Marathon.” Sports Medicine. 37 (4) 374-377.

There is no doubt that 2017 was a big year for the discussion and adoption of sport performance feedback technology. For some, the talk may seem like old hat, but I think last year saw a critical mass of various levels of team sport making purchases. From high school through elite levels, teams are buying force plates, velocity-based training (VBT) barbell trackers, smart medicine balls, timing gates, and the list goes on.

Tech purchases have gotten ahead of the understanding of what to do with their valuable feedback, says @Scott_Damman. Share on X

However, I think there is a caveat to this phase of adoption. The purchases of feedback tech have gotten ahead of the understanding of what to do with the valuable information. Many have purchased the Ferrari, but do not know how to drive it. Or, as we say out where I live in rural Colorado, the cart has been placed before the horse.

Don’t Get Caught in the Past: Update Your Metrics

I get most of my support calls from high school coaches who made a VBT tech purchase and now need to know what to do with the information. If you spend the money on a Ferrari, you damn well need to know how to drive it, right? The point is, the recent investments on the table will demand that we step up our collective game to figure out how to create best practices around the array of tech options.

The part that alarms me a bit is that much of this sport tech has been around for decades, but we are still living in the 1990s with its applied use. The big-budget teams have had access to these tools (for example, VBT tech) for more than 20 years and still often get stuck on one metric: full range-of-motion concentric AVG speed. In other words, the VBT mullet of metrics. 

Let me share the athlete experience I had nine years ago—the experience where the light bulb came on regarding the measurements that may really matter. In 2008-09, I was working with a National Alpine team, applying the Myotest device for jump performance baselining and fatigue monitoring. For those who may not be aware of the Myotest, which is no longer available, it was a Swiss company that created the first field-use and wireless accelerometer sport feedback tool. The product was pioneering, and much of what you see today related to team VBT applications (estimates of 1RM, force/velocity profiles, power profiles, etc.) originated with the Myotest.

Video 1. The Canadian Cowboys in 2009, testing muscle stiffness properties—kilonewton meter (kN-m)—using the Myotest plyometric jump protocol. Here is a two-time World Champion hitting 67.3 kN-m. Matt Price (second from the right), who is currently the L.A. Kings (NHL) Head of Strength & Conditioning, was the Director of Sports Performance for Alpine Canada at the time. I’m on the far right.

One of the monitoring protocols set up by Matt Price, the Alpine Director of Sport Performance (now with the NHL’s L.A. Kings), was a body weight squat jump. This called for strict adherence to the protocol for testing: static position with NO countermovement. They used this protocol, along with a few other jump protocols (like you see in Video 1) to monitor fatigue during the grueling World Cup season. I met up with the team when they came through Colorado (Beaver Creek) for a World Cup stop, and assisted with some data collection and analysis. In 2009, this stuff was very new, so Matt and I spent a good deal of time “talking shop,” and Matt was forward-thinking in how he could best apply this feedback.

Understand which metrics or analysis from an athlete’s #data represent the difference-making stuff, says @Scott_Damman. Share on X

I was always curious to understand how the Myotest data helped define the athlete. In other words, which metrics or analysis I could pull from the instant feedback that represented the difference-making stuff. Instead of looking athlete to athlete, I started with a wide comparison of a world-class ski racer vs. a regular Joe: comparing the two-time World Champion skier in the above video to me.

The Surprise Results and the Light Bulb

You can see the comparison report below: Test 1 is me, Test 2 is the athlete. If you look between the two yellow arrows, you will see our comparison results for power, concentric force, speed, and jump height. Today’s mainstream performance feedback conversation, especially VBT with the barbell, definitely tilts on the side of speed (meters per second), along with power (watts).

If we only look at the two popular performance indicators, speed (m/s) and power (watts), for this comparison report, we see that the power output was virtually identical and the difference in speed was 8%. The concentric force output was identical, with 0% difference. On paper, these two guys look very close. Comparing speed and power is a fairly typical performance evaluation these days. However, these comparison results sure did not make much sense to me, and they certainly did not help answer my question of finding the measures that matter; measures that define the true athlete. But, upon digging a bit deeper and analyzing the force curve, the picture starts to get clearer.

The black arrows in the report point to two very different-looking forces curves. Using the Myotest software, I set triggers to look at force production from 0-200 milliseconds (ms). Instead of looking at the full range-of-motion jump outputs, the 0-200 ms time “window” represents rate of force development (RFD). The elite athlete created 1153 newton during that time window, while the regular guy created 319 newton. The athlete generated 360% more force within the initial 200 ms of the squat jump. Light bulb. The takeaway is that this RFD measure may be a measurement that really matters.

It’s Time to Update and Evolve

With the recent and rapid adoption of sport tech feedback tools, let’s make sure the conversation and modern application make the purchases worthwhile. It is the responsibility of the thought leaders and innovators to help the entire market evolve.

Last year I wrote, “Is It Time for Coaches to Rethink Velocity-Based Training?,” with the intent to spur conversation about the measurements that matter and redefine how we apply sport tech feedback. Specific to this case, velocity-based training. Since this article was published, the public discussion has been alarmingly low. The VBT mullet still reigns, and that, quite frankly, is a bit of a sad state of affairs.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

Countless people have written about the bench press, largely as a function of the fact it is a contested lift in powerlifting. Powerlifting’s approach to bench has had an enormous influence on weight room approaches the world over. Many athletes—especially those responsible for their own strength training—often grab their first program in the form of a powerlifting template. This generally results in young athletes exhibiting the shoulder pathologies of those who are much older. Trying to divorce horizontal pressing from its powerlifting sensibilities goes down as well as suggesting we drop the catch from cleans.

There has been heavy reporting of tight anterior shoulders and poor scapular mobility due to an overuse of the bench, and with good reason. Poor pressing technique, over-eager number chasers, questionable ROM, and training imbalances can wreak havoc on an athlete population. The bench press, much like the vertical press, isn’t going anywhere and should form part of a well-balanced and nuanced training approach. Contact athletes—especially those engaged in push and framing type contacts—benefit from powerful pressing, from top to bottom.

If you’ve read any of my articles, you’ll sense an overarching theme of finding intensification and load where we can, so standing one-arm cable pressing and one-armed and landmine presses that look like they came fresh off a physiotherapist’s photocopier are not going to cut it!

Horizontal Pressing and Athletic Performance

The flat bench has taken a battering in the modern age of clickbait-oriented content and trainers looking to gain traction with antithetical commentary. The anti-bench approach is lionized widely, but the bench didn’t get us here—weight room culture is probably more to blame. The kids just won’t stop benching!

You’d think tight anterior shoulders and poor scapular mobility due to an overuse of the bench are an international health crisis the way some coaches go on. In my last pressing article I discussed similar concerns found with appropriate and excessively cautious implementation of the overhead press. It seems anterior pressing is pathologized in general.

Video 1. A good starting point is doing flat bench presses with a grip that is more narrow than traditional benching. Shoulders that can’t tolerate conventional-style bench pressing respond favorably to this alternative.

There are two trends I notice as soon as an athlete suffers a shoulder injury or develops a pathology. One is to give them a work-around to address the deficiency, allowing them to press, but not fixing the problem. Movement pragmatism is fine provided you get under the hood and fix the issue instead of putting a neutral grip Band-Aid on it. The other is to pathologize them to within an inch of their lives and do anemic press variations ad infinitum, largely perpetuated by a fear-of-injury culture. Fix the problem and get the bar loaded.

Any strength coach worth their salt will generally include some sort of pressing. Upper- and lower-body power and maximal dynamic strength variables were positively correlated to punch acceleration, and pressing strength, in particular, has a strong relationship with upper limb speed.

Any strength coach worth their salt will generally include some sort of pressing, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Some of the most impressive benching I’ve seen has come from throwers. It makes sense that heavy horizontal pressing and vertical pressing would be a key component for athletes in contact sports and sports requiring high-force, high-velocity movements like throwing, pushing, and opponent head and neck control and stiff arm limb contact. It’s why, to some extent, as context influences programming, bench-pressing is non-existent in programs for athletes that operate at very high velocities. However, this is probably built on a base of pressing in their junior years. So, when coaches suggest they don’t bench-press X athlete, there is probably some disingenuity there. Given the propensity to press, I’ve outlined a few variations below that allow for an athlete-centric horizontal pressing approach.

Old School Inclines—They Work

One of the big questions that hangs over horizontal pressing is its functionality, especially the flat bench, which is ostensibly laying on a bench and pressing upward. But let’s not be the harbinger of reductive absurdism; otherwise, we could pull apart snatches, squats, and planks as not being “specific.”

Likewise, the incline bench seems to benefit from the notion that the torso angle in relation to the arms is more sports-specific, while in combat sports I’ve seen bench derided as a bodybuilding exercise that should be avoided at all costs. On the other hand, I’ve seen suggestions that driving through the feet and angle of execution more closely resembles a punch. We could possibly justify it as compromise between horizontal and vertical pressing. Coaches working with throwing athletes seem to have strong opinions on the matter. They are thoroughly keen on the movement and talk of numbers being moved on an incline bench that would make any powerlifter worth his salt blush.

Video 2. Adding chains to incline pressing is a great way to challenge the end range of the movement. Learn to set up chains properly and you will see the benefits down the road.

Bill Starr has written some classic articles discussing how incline pressing seems to be a lost art. “They don’t know that in the late 1950’s and early 60’s the top strength athletes used the incline as their primary upper-body exercise. Greats such as Parry O’Brien, Dallas Long, Randy Matson, Al Oerter and Harold Connolly handled well over 400 pounds on the incline. Ken Patera used it to enhance his overhead press and ended up with an amazing 507, which will forever stand as the American record in the Olympic press.” Much of the research seems to flit between incline bench recruiting more pec major and delt, while having similar tricep recruitment as its flat bench relative.

I am a proponent, often making use of thick grips to make the positioning more comfortable. Done properly, it is difficult to cheat on the movement, but a prudent strength coach may have to police arching in the uninitiated. “You can squirm, you can jerk about and you can rebound the bar until you cough up blood, but you’re never going to find an effective method of cheating on the incline. That’s what I like about it.” –Bill Starr

The incline bench, plus dips and push-downs, is about as close as we get to a Bill Starr press trivium. It’s not a horrible way to approach arm extension if needed. Yes, total numbers will take a hit initially when switching from flat to incline pressing, but this is worth sacrificing for greater ROM. Talking about angles on the bench, I’m a fan of higher inclines, ranging anywhere from 45 to 70 degrees.

Try Close Grip Incline Bench Press

Close grip incline pressing benefits from the potential crossover of torso to limb angle, as well as the degree of the joint angle from the closer hand position on the bar movement and ROM being much greater than with the flat and regular incline benches. Flat bench can become an exercise in ROM manipulation due to the influence of powerlifting practices in strength and conditioning, which favor total weight moved over work done. Close grip incline pressing gives the athlete few places to hide, due to the extremes of elbow extension and flexion involved.

Close grip incline pressing gives the athlete few places to hide, says @WSWayland. Share on X

This is very evident with the population of combat athletes I work with. They often have long arms and shorter clavicular anatomy so close grip incline bench puts them in a position they despise; no ego lifting here. We know, thanks to the classic Green & Comfort (2007) study, that “Reducing grip width to <=1.5 biacromial width appears to reduce this risk and does not affect muscle recruitment patterns, only resulting in a +/-5% difference in one repetition maximum.”

To quote Mike Robertson: “The close-grip bench is an excellent exercise because it’s very ‘real world.’ When you bench press, for example, usually your arms are deviated away from the midline of your body. On the other hand, when you push things in real life, usually your arms are in tight to your body. A great example is a stiff-arm in football. The arm is in close to the body to create the greatest mechanical advantage. Even though you don’t lie down in football, a close-grip incline is a great exercise to improve your stiff-arm strength.”

This close grip position is something I employ with the MMA fighters and grappling athletes, as a hands-tight-to-body position is crucial in pressing, pulling, and framing in these sports. The scapular positioning is better than what we often see in flat benching; incline pressing without depressing the shoulder blades is difficult. You can argue that this scapular positioning could be detrimental but the transfer correlates, as well as 75% of the stuff we do that doesn’t look anything like the sporting action. There is no reason you can’t iron this out with ballistics later on.

Video 3. Incline pressing with higher-than-typical angles is a great option for athletes. Adding thick grips and chains makes a difference that athletes notice, and is a great compromise for those that don’t do vertical presses enough.

The deeper ROM on incline can aggravate some athletes with cranky shoulders. In this case, to reduce AC joint stress, I employ the close grip bench press with a lot of accommodating resistance, such as chains. This enhances tricep drive in the movement, as the movement has a serious sticking point about halfway through. The use of accommodating resistance can also be a novel way to reduce joint pain and makes incline pressing more tolerable for the uninitiated. In turn, you can combine this with thick and false grip pressing, which leads in to the next section.

Add Fat Grip and False Grip Pressing

Thick grip training is nothing new and has been posited as a novel avenue for improving all-over strength for some time. We know grip strength has a strong relationship to general athleticism and robustness. Rather than slap thick grips on to finish up a set of curls, there’s no reason we can’t employ this across a variety of exercise options.

I noticed that thumbs-free thick grip pressing is a boon to athletes with elbow and shoulder issues, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Working largely with a population of fighters, we use a lot of thick grip modalities because it has numerous carryovers to their sport. I also noticed that thumbs-free thick grip pressing was a boon to athletes with elbow and shoulder issues.

Christian Thibaudeau, who has promoted the use of false grip (and thick bars), has remarked on this online: “When you take a regular grip [bench press], your hands turn in slightly. This automatically forces you into an internal shoulder rotation position…This puts stress on the shoulder joint, and if you try to tuck the elbows in—despite the natural inclination for the elbows to be out—you create a lot of torque at the elbow joint. So you either increase the stress on the shoulders or the elbows, neither of which is good. By using a thumbless grip you can easily keep a more neutral hand position, which makes it much more natural to lower the bar while staying tucked. This reduces shoulder stress without increasing torque at the elbows, resulting in a less stressful bench press.”

False thick grip pressing, for instance, seems to be inherently more comfortable and it’s easier on wrists. I’ve been using it extensively with some of my athletes. Despite my initial hesitation, we’ve not had an athlete lose a bar yet. The false grip and the need for intensive stabilization and focus on bar contact make for better pressing. Let’s be clear: The bar is not sitting on the palms as if they were pressing a pair of Faberge eggs. The athlete must wrap their hands around the bar as tight as they can. Pull thumbs under and squeeze actively with fingers down on the bar as much as they can the whole time.

Increasingly thick grip pressing and other work has been shown to be highly impactful in athletes we wouldn’t expect, such as golfers, as recently highlighted by Cummings et al.’s recent Fat Grip Training study. This, however, was a full-body approach to thick grip work. There is a small amount of research looking at thick grip, and very little on thumbs-free pressing.

Video 4. In this video, I share my wisdom on pressing, as I work with an array of athletes in different sports.

I’m being pragmatic here, but something special comes from a stabilization standpoint when we apply eccentrics or pauses with the use of thick grip work in the press, largely as a great need for focus, stability, and lat recruitment. Most of my athletes report that it is a far more full-body affair.

What About Loaded Push-Ups?

Loaded push-ups and suspended push-ups, in particular, became a darling for many “functional” training experts. I’m all for bodyweight intensification, to a point.

Loaded push-ups offer scapular freedom, simplicity, and very low technical coaching investment. This should be the base upon which you build most horizontal pressing variations.

Video 5. Even advanced athletes should still integrate push-ups into their training. You can insert loaded push-ups into nearly any program, and they are timeless options. 

Mladen Jovanic suggests that suspended push-ups are a worthwhile replacement, or at least the next best supplementary exercise to bench. He suggests that “Using rings forces you to use shoulder stabilizers more and allows for ‘natural’ movement of the scapula, and also allows shoulder rotation which can allow lower joint stress (penalty) compared to barbell bench press. Since the stability is compromised, the load used will probably be less than in bench press, hence bench press should still be performed to provide an overload (depend on the athlete need to upper body push strength).” I do, however, disagree with Mladen on his opinion of the incline press, which he seems to think is worthless.

While push-ups possibly offer similar levels of muscular activity compared to bench and freedom of the scapular, loading push-ups, especially with intensive means, becomes difficult. Draping chains over the athlete while palming bands over their back and wearing a loaded vest becomes impractical.

Push-ups make for great volume-based options, but we need to be clear that, aside from abstractions into callisthenic trickery such as feet elevated, one-handed push-ups in a weighted vest and the like, push-ups are hard to really load heavy. 

Floor Pressing – Try It and See

Floor presses really allow you overload the triceps without placing undue stress on the elbows or shoulder. This is a common complaint among heavy pressers and it makes sense that floor pressing can give your shoulders a well-deserved rest with shorter ROM. This shortened row means that stress across the anterior shoulder is kept to a minimum, which is the reason I use it for athletes with shoulder issues. Much like other presses, thick grips seem to make this better.

Video 6. Anyone with a grappling or MMA background can see why floor pressing makes sense. It’s a pressing position off the back that requires powerful chest and tricep recruitment, often from a dead start. This has applicability for making a frame when in the bottom position, stiff arming, bench press mount escaping, and so on.

The floor press teaches tightness and tension on the floor, and the lack of leg drive and any real arch means that movement cannot be assisted: It’s just you, your triceps, your chest, and your shoulders. You can further increase tricep recruitment by bringing your grip closer. You can perform it with a hip bridge, turning it into a bridged floor press—a movement that requires neither a rack nor a spotter and but does require a lot more lat stabilization.

I usually use the floor press as an accessory exercise for the bench press or sometimes cycle it into a program as the main pressing movement. I use it often with grapplers, peaking them with reverse band floor presses done explosively. Give it a try and experiment with it, as it is one exercise that is purely pragmatic in application because research on the movement is scant at best. Most of the information we have on it comes largely from powerlifting sources, aside from dumbbell floor pressing popping up in a few NSCA and physiotherapy manuals.

Important Caveats to Pressing

Pressing comes with a big question mark, as Bob Alejo highlighted in his recent post, “Myths and Misconceptions of Training the Overhead Athlete.” “Based on the evidence and common sense, it’s likely that pull volume should be significantly higher than pressing volume (I recommend a 2:1 ratio) to reduce the risk of poor shoulder function, pain, and injury.”

As I stated in the press article, pressing needs to be earned with progressions coming from the floor up to unilateral to bilateral underload, offset by a diet of heavy pulling both vertically and horizontally. Bad posture, weak scapular stabilization, and poor rotator cuff function are your responsibility to fix or move towards fixing; pressing should be earned. And, as Bob mentions in his article, pressing is built on a foundation of not only rowing, but also the action of the upper body doing heavy hinging. In short, a strong upper back and posterior chain is the price we pay for a quality press.

In short, a strong upper back and #PosteriorChain is the price we pay for a quality press, says @WSWayland. Share on X

Taking this into account, much of the pressing I prescribe comes with a heavy dose of eccentric upper back work, hinge, and overhead pressing. Extensive usage of heavy neutral grip lowering, which Carl Valle touches upon in this eccentric exercise article, is noteworthy. I find a mix of NG lowering and close grip incline pressing makes a pretty effective combination for many athletes. Heavy RDLs and snatch grip RDLs, which require extensive shoulder and scapular bracing, are another addition to this.

Suggested Reading

“The Affect of Grip Width on Bench Press Performance and Risk of Injury” 

“Comparison of chain- and plate-loaded bench press training on strength, joint pain, and muscle soreness in Division II baseball players”

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