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In 2011, junior Brandon Moss won the Texas 4A Region 1 track meet and set the Chapin High School triple jump record with a massive leap of 48′-2″. The victory earned him a ticket to Austin for the 4A state championship meet two weeks later. The 2nd and 3rd place medalists also qualified.

The results were much different at State. The two athletes Brandon had outperformed at regionals placed ahead of him. Brandon walked away with a 4th place finish (47′-1.75″), while John Warren of Killeen jumped 48′-4″ to earn silver and Shakiel Randolph of Waco Midway bounded his way to bronze (48′-1″).

I remember agonizing over the results. On each of his six attempts, Brandon was as much as 18 inches behind the board even though he had practiced running through the board numerous times during the weeks leading up to State. I was dumbfounded and couldn’t find the words to console Brandon. It might have been nerves, the stage, or overconfidence. We vowed to fix the problem and return to State his senior year and medal.

Stance Setup

Too often I see high school athletes trying to emulate elite jumpers. Some walk or skip into their approach. Others place their feet parallel to each other and simulate a “waterfall” start. Still others put on a theatric performance filled with entertaining hand movements, confusing foot placements, and clapping. Unfortunately, all these methods lead to an inconsistent drive phase that decreases the likelihood of a consistent approach.

All our jumpers begin with their power leg/foot forward, so they have an even number of steps. It is easy for them to remember, and it makes our life as coaches that much simpler. We typically have several athletes jumping simultaneously at meets. If you ask each one, “What leg do you jump off of?” as I have observed many coaches do, it will drive you crazy by season’s end.

Video 1. Crouch start analysis for the horizontal jumps.

In the crouch start, the athlete places his back foot 8-12 inches behind his power leg for a balanced and consistent base. He leans over from his waist, placing his chest near his power leg thigh. We cue the athlete to “bring chest to thigh and nose to knee.” The power-leg knee is over the front toe, resulting in the shins being inclined and the hips higher than the head. The hips should be placed above (vertically) the space created by the two feet. The majority of weight is on the front foot, although some weight should remain on the back foot as well. The front toe should remain on the ground, and the back heel is off the ground. Finally, the arms are in alternated positions with the one opposite the front leg forward.

Video 2. Roll-over start analysis for the horizontal jumps.

In the rollover start, the athlete’s feet remain in the same positions as the crouch start, but the upper body is tilted back. In this position, the front toe is off the ground and pointing up (dorsiflexed), with the back heel on the ground. The arms are alternated, with the one opposite the front foot raised high overhead. The athlete initiates the rollover by bending at the waist and creating a position similar to the crouch start. However, it is extremely important to note that the athlete should bend at the waist FIRST as he brings his chest to the thigh before the front toe touches the track or the back heel leaves the ground. If the athlete moves his knee over his front toe and back heel off the ground before bending at the waist, he most likely will stumble from the start.

The Drive Phase

The first four to six steps of the approach determine either success or inconsistency at the board. The majority of high school jumpers lack consistency at the board primarily because of an unpredictable drive phase. I constantly hear coaches telling their jumpers to move two feet back or two feet forward without first having checked out the accuracy of the athlete’s first four to six steps. Those athletes will move forward and hit the same mark as before, or even worse, be over the board by an entire stride.

Check the drive phase first. I’ve attended several conferences where college coaches have suggested establishing a checkmark for jumpers. This definitely works for full-time jumpers or if you work exclusively with a few athletes, but the majority of high school athletes also run individual sprints and relays. I work with many jumpers at the same time, so trying to establish a check mark for each of them seems tiresome and unreliable.

However, if an athlete is having difficulty getting on the board at a meet, the first issue I address is the drive phase. I immediately check the athlete’s 4th or 6th overall step and make sure it is consistent. If the drive phase is consistent, the reason he is not hitting the board occurs later. But the majority of the time this check will remedy the situation.

And why wait until the meet? I might have a jumper who has just completed a 4×100 race and must report back to the pit within 10 minutes. He is tired and might also be competing in another field event. I believe in check marks and in fact, they have helped several of my jumpers. But they will only confuse the majority of high school athletes. Use them as needed.

Athletes need to be patient during the drive phase. “Patience” here means they should feel longer timed pushes into the track, resulting in movement up and forward during the initial part of the approach. We want them to be powerful, rather than quick. Quickness does not equal fast.

Jumpers should work on large ranges of motions with their arms, which will allow their legs to work in sync. If they can produce “big arms,” the opposing thigh will work toward the chest in unison, creating greater force application. This will also appear as if the athlete is coming out of blocks, and the coach should see triple extension. This includes the head being aligned with the body and not tucking the chin. Cue the athlete to “split big,” use “powerful pushes,” and continue to reiterate patience.

The Continuation Phase

The middle part of the approach consists of 4-8 steps, depending on the length of the approach. The early part of this phase continues to have some aspects of the drive/acceleration phase. Look for the head to remain in line with the spine and hips. The head, body, and hips gradually unfold into a tall posture during this phase. Once the jumper is upright, he will continue to run faster and approach max velocity. At this point, the jumper has become a sprinter. Therefore, the coach should encourage effective sprinting mechanics. The feet should land directly below the hips and at contact the shins should be at or near 90 degrees.

Because the jumper is using sprinting mechanics during this phase, max velocity sessions, wickets, and/or full-fledged sprinting drills provide an opportunity to coach athletes to work this aspect of the approach. The main point here is that 90 percent of the success of the jump occurs during the approach. Flight, landing, and air mechanics are predetermined based on the approach and takeoff.

Too many jump coaches, I believe, waste time on gimmicks that place the athlete in a high-risk environment. These gimmicks include placing a hurdle near the jumping board to have the athlete get more height and increase knee drive at the end of the long jump approach. Another is placing barriers at specific distances and having triple jumpers bound over them to increase second-phase distances. I’ve often witnessed both of these at high school practices even though height in the long jump and second-phase distance in the triple jump are a result of other factors, not stand-alone causes. You’re better off having your jumpers work on becoming better sprinters, which in turn makes them faster and leads to more successful jumps.

The Final Four Steps

Long Jump: Mention “penultimate step” to an incoming freshman or fast sprinter who wants to try jumping, and they will give you the same look they give a foreign language instructor teaching verb tenses. We call it “p-step”; the kids like it because it sounds cool.
Before getting to the p-step—the last step before takeoff—it is important for athletes to understand that they must continue to sprint at near full-controlled speed. High school jumpers tend to get to the board and freak out. They either try to get faster or come to a screeching halt, thereby destroying the momentum they’ve built up during the approach. You need to make sure they continue sprinting all the way onto the p-step.

During the p-step, the athlete’s hips lower while still maintaining velocity. The p-step lands slightly ahead of the hips and allows the center of mass (hips/torso/head) to move upward and forward. As the p-step foot nears the surface, it should be dorsiflexed, allowing the heel to lead the foot onto the ground. The actual contact on the track will be flat with the entire p-step foot creating a rocking-chair-like movement onto the toe. This rolling movement allows the hips and center of mass to move upward and forward. The athlete should feel the p-step behind him, allowing the toe to remain on the ground and the heel to be slightly off the ground to create a bridged position. During the transition from the foot striking the ground into the bridged position, the hips move forward, and the shin shifts forward and down toward the track.

Video 3. Penultimate step analysis.

The takeoff leg should also hit the board in a flat manner and slightly ahead of the center of mass. This means the takeoff foot lands in front of the hips, but not excessively. The jumper should allow the hips to go past the takeoff foot as it pushes down and away from the board.

Triple Jump: The final four steps need to be as close as possible to full sprinting mechanics but in a controlled and relaxed manner. The jumper should continue to land with his foot directly under his hips and maintain a tall and straight posture. Much like the anticipation in the long jump, many jumpers slow down near the board. But this destroys posture and mechanics, leading the jumper to reach for the board and foul because of the excessive front-side mechanics.

Only in the last step should the foot strike slightly ahead of the hips. Again, the jump foot should hit the board in a flat manner and then allow the hips to pass through. The jumper should be cued to be patient on the board by “running through the board” and then pushing off. If the athlete is patient, the height of the first phase of the triple jump will be lower. But rushing onto the board and prematurely jumping creates too much height for an effective first phase.

Number of Steps

How many steps should each jumper take for the approach? There are many proposed guidelines, and the differences are significant, but the number generally falls between 12-22 steps for high school athletes. You can either count every stride your jumper takes to arrive at the board or only the jumping leg. For example, a 12-step approach would be the same as a 6-step approach counting only the power leg.

While all coaches base their approach distance on different aspects, you need to consider the jumper’s training age (how long the athlete has been participating in track and field), speed, strength, and other related factors. The lower the speed and strength of an athlete, the fewer the steps. The reason is simple: the sooner the athlete gets to controlled top speed, the sooner deceleration begins. The key is the amount of time an athlete can sustain his top controlled speed approaching the board. It is important to note, however, that although a high school jumper may be faster, stronger, and have a relatively higher training age, he may not necessarily benefit from a longer approach. I’ve never had any jumper go past a 16-step approach.

Measuring Steps

When measuring the total distance and the number of steps for each athlete, have them get their marks on the track rather than the pit. Introducing jumpers to the runway—even veterans—when you first measure distances will lead them to alter their mechanics to hit the board. Have them line up at the starting line or finish line, with either a crouch start or rollover start, and measure the total number of steps and distance from that point.

Be sure to include a “pop up.” If you simply run through with a predetermined amount of steps, the measurement will be inaccurate. A “pop up,” as shown in this video, includes the p-step and takeoff.

Have them do this 4-6 times on the track and place a piece of tape from the takeoff spot each time. Then measure the distance from the most consistent takeoff spot. For example, if the athlete has five takeoffs, and three pieces of tape are within a few inches of each other, measure from that spot all the way back to the starting point. Next, take that measurement and begin from the back of the board (nearest to the sand pit) and measure away from the pit.

When should a coach allow the athletes to take their marks and practice approaches on the runway? When you feel comfortable, they can attack the board without hesitation. We generally have a month before our first meet. In the past, I have allowed jumpers to start practicing approaches within two weeks after measuring their approach distance. But two years ago we didn’t practice any approaches on the runway until we got to the actual meet. That is part of the art of coaching: figuring out what works best for your athletes.

Brandon: The Sequel

In his senior year, Brandon had knee issues, so we had to limit his triple jumping. He still did 47′-10″ and finished 3rd at the regional meet. However, he long jumped 24′-1.5″ at the same meet to earn a gold medal and punch his ticket to State. The jump set both a school record and the city record for a non-wind-aided jump. As coaches, we dream about our athletes executing the perfect jump and Brandon did it.

The weather at State two weeks later was rainy, and the boards were slippery. Yet Brandon trusted himself, his mark, and his entire approach. He leaped 22′-9.25″ to earn gold.

All the principles I’ve outlined in this article are the same ones we practice with our jumpers throughout the season and year by year. But they are only guidelines. I still search daily for anything to give my athletes and me a better understanding of the horizontal jumps.

Just like anything else in track, the horizontal jump approach is a process. Schedule time in your practices to work the approach 2 to 3 times a week. When focusing on acceleration, allow the athletes to work the drive phase from a crouch or rollover start. In max velocity, they can work on transition and final step mechanics on the track. Work the approach on the runway when you feel your jumpers are ready. Stay away from gimmicks and flashy landing and bounding drills. Instead, focus on the fundamentals that will make your jumpers faster, stronger, and more accurate on the board and enjoy the results.

Credits

Special thanks to the following mentors: Boo Schexnayder, Schexnayder Athletic Consulting and contributor to Completetrackandfield. Reuben Jones, Associate Head Coach/Sprints, Jumps and Hurdles at Columbia University and contributor to Completetrackandfield. Latif Thomas, Owner of Completetrackandfield. Ron Grigg, Director of Cross Country/Track and Field at Jacksonville University. Nick Newman, Director of Scholastic Training at Athletic Lab and contributor to Elitetrack. Travis Geopfert, Field Events and Multi-Event Athlete Coach at the University of Arkansas and contributor to Digitaltrackandfield. Jake Jacoby, Former Jumps Coach at the University of Louisville. Calvin Robinson, Assistant Coach at Texas Tech.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Plyometrics are only truly useful if there is a specific intent behind them. They aren’t a magic pill. They must provide an overload in at least one of the following areas to provide a real athletic benefit:

• Muscle recruitment
• Speed of recruitment
• Muscle coordination
• Ground reaction force

Doing plyometrics for the sake of their fancy name or promised benefits won’t lead you down the path to athletic excellence.

There is an inherent joy in leaving the pull of the earth’s gravity. In reading through Joe Navarro’s The Power of Body Language, it became clear to me that acting against gravity is a bodily sign of pure joy. What is in the mind is in the body. Jumping is a universal sign of happiness and excitement.

Jump training has been a huge part of my life, and they joy of getting just a little farther off the ground than the last week, month, or year has been a driver in my search for training methods and philosophies surrounding this human movement.

For this article (series), I am whittling much of those ideas down into three primary forms of effective plyometric exercise to help usher one’s jumping ability to its fullest potential. We’ll start with the usual method informed coaches and athletes turn to for building vertical jump ability (if they are physically ready for it), shock plyometrics, and then get into two less considered, yet vital, training ideals for building more vertical and reactive power, variable and “pliosoidal” jump training, and also that of contrast/cluster work.

Jumping is a universal sign of happiness and excitement. Share on X

I wrote his article with the track and field coach and athlete in mind, but the following workouts can apply to any athlete interested in jumping higher and becoming more explosive. These methods are also covered and arranged in detail in my latest book Vertical Ignition.

High Powered Shock Plyometrics

If you want to jump high, then you need to train the jump pathway at a more intense level than you ever have before.

The number one priority of jump training is for the athlete to learn to produce more force in less time, and put that force in the right place. Nothing is better suited to this task than a proper selection of intense sprints and plyometric exercises. Since sprinting is another topic, we’ll just stick to plyometrics for the sake of this article.

Before plyometrics were given their “American” name, they had a far more fearsome and intimidating label: “shock training”. I doubt the term “plyometric” was being thrown around shortly after the Soviets tricked the Americans by telling them that an 8-9 foot box was the optimal height in which to drop from in the depth jump exercise.

Shock training was (and still is) a series of landing and jumping exercises based on the depth jump. Jumping itself is a volatile, violent event, where an athlete must handle multiple times their bodyweight in an instant. Jumping, like sprinting is a hindbrain activity, where reflex action is key.

Plyometrics designed to overload the jumping process should, therefore, yield even greater forces, or rates of loading than jumping, and do so in a precision manner that allows force to be properly channeled for the ultimate leap. As far as improving vertical jump is concerned, plyometrics that teach athletes to utilize maximal forces in the vertical and horizontal vectors reflexively are paramount.

Granted, not everyone can just set out and start banging out depth jumps from a 48” box, or performing a standing triple jump from a 24” elevated start position. Shock plyometrics are best used once an athlete has reached physical maturity, has good training experience, and more importantly, good proficiency, in lower level plyometric takeoffs and landings. As I see it, there are two basic types of shock plyometrics that can be used in the training of track and field jumpers, and other aspiring vertical jump athletes:

• Depth jumping and related activities
• Triple jump family bounding

Depth Jump Family

When it comes to jumping higher, coaches and athletes should have a close relationship with the depth jump. 2.40m high jumper Rudolf Povarnitsyn did.

Regarding the basic depth jump, the exercise is easily modulated towards the ability level of the athlete. An 18” depth jump is as different from a 48” depth jump as a 135lb squat is from a 405lb squat, and you don’t hear many in-the-trenches strength coaches going around telling half of their athletes to avoid barbell squatting.

The use of low boxes in depth jumping is one of the best ways to teach younger athletes, who are ready to train more seriously (late middle school, early high school), landing mechanics in a “single response” format. On the level of higher boxes, depth jumps are directly scalable to the landing and reactive ability of the athlete as they progress through their athletic career.

Learning to perform a depth jump in a single response format is the base work for many other plyometric exercises. As legendary strength coaches, such as Dan John, have said: learn the proper position first, then do it in volume, and finally, start increasing the load. Low intensity, repetitive plyometrics are a useful tool for younger and less experienced athletes, but if the first rep isn’t correct, the middle and last ones generally won’t be either. Starting with the single response is the ground work for success of multiple repetitions.

Depth Jump Family: Single Leg Versions

An advanced version of the depth jump that is particularly useful for all athletes, and not just the track and field variety, is the single leg depth jump. Interestingly enough, the single leg depth jump has much more in common with the two leg jump than it does a single leg takeoff. Why? Contact time.

Single leg depth jumps tend to yield a relatively long contact time compared to its two leg counterparts (although this time can be lowered considerably when rebounding over a hurdle). Since this is the case, the single leg depth jump is more closely related to the “explode” quality of a vertical jump than the driving, “reactive” quality of single leg leaping. Think of it as a GPP exercise for single leg jumps, and an SPP exercise for double leg jumping.

Again, with this in mind, I’ll almost always use a hurdle, or a series of hurdles if I am implementing this type of work. Otherwise, the ground contacts can be a little too long to be usable. Below is a sample of a single leg depth jump over an (importantly) collapsible hurdle. For even better results, perform this exercise in a series over lower hurdles where posture can be easily maintained, and contact time kept in check.

Depth Jump Family: Hurdle Hops

Where depth jumps are of a more powerful, single dose, nature, hurdle hops are a rhythmic, vibration like counterpart. In the landmark book “Running”, by Frans Bosch and Ronald Klomp, sprinting is noted to be a cyclic activity, with each stride closely linked to the last via reflex action. It is for this reason that high and long jumpers will often increase the cadence of their last few strides leading into takeoff because a faster frequency will allow a faster reflex of the takeoff mechanism itself (from the inverse-extension reflex). Each step on the approach is related to the step before it, and therefore, the plant step is related to the penultimate, and each step prior. Nobody jumps too high or far off one leg with long, loping strides all the way until the plant. Good jumpers will instinctively escalate the cadence of their pre-takeoff strides to yield a better reflex connection into the takeoff step. In this manner, each hurdle hop is related to the one before it.

Although hurdle hops are a bilateral activity, they are still cyclic in nature and based on reflexive mechanisms that bind each jump together. Because of this nature, along with the fact that the presence of a hurdle leads to quicker contact times, the hurdle hop is an invaluable counterpart to the depth jump in the world of shock plyometrics.

Also, because hurdle hops are an easier exercise to perform in a higher number of repetitions, they are an excellent tool for solidifying, and building on the mechanics learned through single response depth jumps. These can be done off one, or two legs, and I strongly recommend collapsible hurdles in either scenario! Hurdle hops can be spaced according to the goal of the day, or simply for variety’s sake. Farther apart hurdles will yield shorter touchdown times, and a premium on maintaining momentum. Closer hurdles will have a more powerful effect on the knee extensors muscles.

One of my personal favorite developmental plyometrics for the high jump event specifically is the double hurdle + big hurdle jump. In this exercise, two hurdles set the cyclic rhythm of the jump, and the last jump is over a max height hurdle. It’s a nice exercise for mimicking the quicker steps that tend to precede the powerful takeoff stride, along with a nice induction of variety into the training montage. You can see this exercise below in one of my “classic” (extremely poor quality and editing) YouTube videos.

Triple Jump Family

The next style of shock plyometrics goes into the “triple jump family”. Where depth jumps and hurdle hops develop the ability of an athlete to store and release energy in the vertical plane, bounding variations overload the sweep-like planting mechanism in the horizontal plane. There are plenty of ways to perform bounding for the sake of a better vertical jump, not to mention improved acceleration and sprint abilities. Here are a few bullet points on my thoughts regarding the art of bounding for improved jump power.

• A combination of bounding styles is best. Even if athletes aren’t triple jumpers, they will still benefit greatly from learning single leg, and left-left, right-right styles of bounding, as these work different portions of the stumble and inverse-extension reflexes seen in sprint gait.
• The single leg, and left-left, right-right style bound in particular trains an athlete to reduce excessive backside mechanics in the sprint gait cycle, the nature of the bound forcing a quicker transition back into a forward rotation of the swing thigh after the foot leaves the ground in push-off.
• Bounding should be addressed from both the shorter, multi-jump arena (such as standing triple jump), as well as the longer bounding means (various combinations over a distance of 20-40m). Short bounds develop power, and longer bounds build elasticity and jump reflex action, as well as some general jump capacity. The means of bounding that has the highest transfer to almost all track jumping events (as referenced in “Transfer of Training”) is a 10-fold bound from a standing start, which is a bit in the middle of short and long bounding sequences.
• Perform bounds from both a standing start, as well as a run-in. Record best distances for both styles.
• Don’t be afraid to end a shorter bounding session with a single “endurance” set, of 40-60+ meters. This works similarly to the way that a single high-rep drop set works in a strength training session. It is also useful practice for heavier jumpers with more muscle mass, as “endurance” work can assist in the rapid relaxation qualities of their muscle fibers.

The categories of bounding that I’ll generally use are that of:

• Short multi-jumps (3-5 jumps from a standing or running start).
• Longer bounds of 20-40m, which are nearly always done in the form of a “complex” where different types of bounds are performed in a circuit.

For multi-jumps, there is usually only one type of jump trained each day, and it is measured and recorded. A different approach is taken during the longer bounds. Since when doing a series of bounding of a moderate distance, muscle coordination is a premium adaptation, rather than raw power and recruitment, it also makes sense to include a variety of types of efforts. On training days where you are following up some specific jump efforts with plyometrics, I prefer the majority chunk of those auxiliary plyometrics to be more of the muscle-coordination variety, rather than all single effort bursts.

Bottom line, use short multi-jumps as a source of long-term measured improvement and use longer bounds in variety to build elasticity, muscle coordination, and some specific jump capacity.

Putting it all together

I often use a shock plyometric workout as a stand alone, or in partial volume to finish off an event specific practice on a high CNS training day. This type of workout is one that requires the athlete to be fairly fresh coming in, either off a day of rest, or a potentiation based day of resistance training and coordination based elastic work.

Most of my articles are a bit short on things like exact exercises, sets and reps, but in this one, I’ll give you a snapshot of some sample training constructs. The following are linear versions of my favorite combinations of high-powered shock training:

Vertical Vector Power Emphasis

1. Double leg depth jump to a target (3-5 sets x 2-5 reps)
2. Single leg depth jumps over a hurdle (2-5 sets x 2-4 reps)
3. Hurdle Hops (2-3 sets x 4-8 reps)
4. Bounding Combinations (100-250m)
5. Shot Throws (5-20 reps)

In this workout, the quality and breadth of the depth jumping will determine how many repetitions of the lower level, coordination based plyometrics are performed, such as the hurdle hops, and bounding combinations. The shot throws have more of an explosive, high-velocity reset nature to them, but their reps are also variable.

To steer this type of workout towards a raw force nature, the double and single leg depth jumps can be performed in a “drop-off” format, where the exercise is stopped as soon as an athletes maximal rebound jump starts to go down.

Vertical Vector Power-Speed Emphasis

1. Double leg drop jump over hurdle, or to another box (3-5 sets x 4-8 reps)
2. Double leg depth jump over a hurdle (3-5 sets x 3-6 reps)
3. Hurdle hops with generous spacing (2-4 sets x 3-6 reps)
4. Bounding combinations (200-400m)
5. Shot throws (5-20 reps)

Horizontal Vector Emphasis

1. Multi-jumps from a run-in, e.g. 5 bounds from a 5 stride run-in (x 4-8 reps)
2. Hurdle hops with generous spacing, 5-7’ apart (3-4 x 4-6 reps)
3. Depth Jumps, shorter box, shorter rest (3-6 sets x 4-8 reps)
4. Shot Throws (5-20 reps)

Combined Emphasis Sample I

1. Double Leg Depth Jump over 2 hurdles (4-10 sets x 1 reps)
2. Standing Triple Jump (x3-5)
3. Hurdle Hops (2-3 sets x 4-8 reps)
4. Bounding Combinations (100-300m)
5. Shot Throws (5-20 reps)

Conclusion

The depth jump and triple jump exercises, and their various offspring allow for a myriad of high-powered possibilities in the world of athletic development. Each exercise on its own is never the magic 8-ball of results, but putting powerful exercises together into complexes begins to sow the seeds of one’s highest level of athletic jump performance.

The next “workout” in this series will be that of plyometric (and human) variability. Stay tuned.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

The recent trend in coaching is sport-specific training and early specialization. Neither of these complies with the “learning to learn” theory; in fact, they lie at the opposite ends of the spectrum. Athletes should be encouraged to acquire general adaptations to all types of fitness endeavors to become well-rounded, versatile, and trainable in other activities.

Arguably, a college football player will have a much better athletic background and skill set if he plays high school basketball and competes in track and field during the offseason.

Sport-specific learning can be broken down into the fundamental movement levels of coordination, flexibility, speed, strength, and endurance. Training all of these throughout a periodization cycle grants the most access to learning specific skills down the road and results in quicker adaptation.

Learning to Learn

Researchers have proposed the theory of learning to learn to explain how the transfer of skills can apply to related motor skills as well as unrelated ones, independent of prior experience.¹ Essentially, not all motor skills need to be taught or trained in a specific fashion to achieve proficiency. A general adaptation to coordination can occur with an athlete who has never trained an exact motion.

For example, an experienced snowboarder can often cross over to skiing easily. The basic maneuvers on the snow are very different due to the body’s position on skis rather than a board, but the underlying principles of cutting, braking, and balance are transferrable.

Possibly people modulate limb stiffness to accommodate new changes in their environment and their specific task at hand. This allows room for error, which provides constructive feedback on how to learn and adapt for following trials.¹

Neurologically, these learning functions are attributed to the brain’s anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The ACC shows the greatest neural activity in the early stages of learning where corrections and adjustments are made rather quickly. And it serves this role regardless of the task presented.¹ Sensorimotor adaptations occur under a general umbrella of learning that can then be used to generate specific, well-adapted skills.

Transfer of Learning: Acquiring New Motor Skills

Transfer of learning occurs when prior motor skill acquisition impacts later motor learning, either positively or negatively.² With a positive transfer, previous learning experiences make it easy to learn a new skill or perform within a new context. We believe transfer may occur because a motor pathway was already established for a similar skill or performance framework.

For example, the overhand throw of a baseball positively transfers to the overhand throw of a football.² Although the throws are not identical, the motor firing sequence is similar. Learning one after the other is beneficial due to positive transfer.

There are two theories explaining why positive transfer occurs. One is the identical elements theory—the degree to which the two tasks are similar determines the efficacy of transfer.² These elements can be abstract, such as an athlete’s mental state, or grounded, such as the specific characteristics of a skill movement pattern. The second theory is transfer-appropriate processing, which refers to the similarity of cognitive processing between two tasks.

Positive transfer can also apply to training adaptations in endurance athletes, which lines up with the identical elements theory. Physical training enhances the performance capacity of untrained muscles in a generalized manner.³

We can see this transfer in endurance athletes who primarily train the legs and experience an increased endurance capacity in their upper body.³

Endurance athletes who primarily train the legs experience increased endurance in upper body. Share on X

Strength training can have a direct transfer of learning effect on endurance capacity as well. Issurin (2013)³ discussed how the outcomes of strength training have a positive growth effect on slow-twitch muscle fibers and an increase in the oxidative energy in local muscle mitochondria.

Similarly, strength training increases the tendon stiffness and elastic properties of the muscles involved in both activities. We can see this in increased storage capacity and function during the eccentric contractions of running mechanics. Overall, this improves an endurance athlete’s work economy.³

Strength training also enhances peripheral blood circulation for better perfusion of oxygen during local muscle contraction.³ By increasing the absolute strength of muscles, an endurance athlete can increase their muscle efficiency; this allows them to operate under low levels of blood circulation common to intense exercise.

The anabolic effect of strength training combined with the catabolic effect of endurance training, though, can sometimes lead to a negative transfer of learning. Hormonal responses to training are directly in tune with the intensity, duration, and type of exercise performed.³ The correct prescription ratio of strength-endurance is key to maximizing the positive effect of hormones in training.

Clearly the activities encompassing strength and endurance training are substantially different in technique and movement patterns. However, there is a direct, positive link between the learned adaptations of one having a positive influence on the other. Although the two activities are very dissimilar, the identical elements theory does apply in a physiologic context.

Transfer-appropriate processing may have a role in the cognitive effects of strength training on endurance performance, especially if we consider hormonal influences.

Bilateral Training Transfer From One Limb to Another

Bilateral transfer of learning refers to the learning of a particular task with one limb with a cross-transfer to the opposite limb.² The theory states that learning a skill initially with one hand or foot will facilitate learning the same skill easily with the opposite hand or foot.

Bilateral transfer can be explained cognitively by the identical elements theory, which establishes that the basic motor principles of a movement are learned the first time around, regardless of the limb.² Thus the “how-to” component is already present for future learning.

Similarly, the motor control explanation for bilateral transfer is based on the development of a generalized motor pattern during the early stages of learning. Although this is not associated with a particular limb, it can later be recalled in either limb.²

Does the principle of bilateral transfer apply to all motor skills? Researchers found that bilateral transfer is valid for the timing of movements but not force application.⁴

Bilateral transfer occurs for the timing of movements but not force application. Share on X

During an experiment of bilateral transfer of learning from dominant to non-dominant hands, the researchers used surface electromyography (sEMG) to monitor the fine motor capacity of the first dorsal interosseous. The improvement in relative reaction timing between the two limbs was strikingly similar—56% in the trained limb and 58% in the untrained limb.

The force control training did not transfer to the opposite limb, however, even when substantial learning occurred in the trained limb. This may be attributed to the degree, or threshold, of force required to recruit the opposite hemispheric motor cortex brain.⁴

Without sufficient stimulation, especially with fine motor movements, learning may not be induced. Timing, however, is more reflexive in nature and requires less cortical involvement within the brain.

We can use a healthy limb as a platform for learning in a weak or injured limb. Share on X

In practical terms, bilateral transfer is important in the field of rehabilitation medicine. Physical therapists and trainers can use the healthy limb as a platform for learning in a weakened or injured limb.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Seidler, Rachael D., “Neural Correlates of Motor Learning, Transfer of Learning, and Learning to Learn,” Exercise Sport Sciences Reviews, 38(1) (2010): 3-9.
2. Magill, Richard, and David Anderson, Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Applications (10th ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014).
3. Issurin, V.B., “Training Transfer: Scientific background and insights for practical application,” Sports Medicine, 43(8) (2017): 675-694.
4. Yao, W. X., A. Cordova, Y. Huang, Y. Wang, and X. Lu, “Bilateral Transfer for Learning to Control Timing but Not for Learning to Control Fine Force,” Perceptual & Motor Skills, 118(2) (2014): 400-410.

The first two blogs in this series focused on establishing data reliability (Data in Sports Performance: Why Your Measurements Matter) and a foundation for practical data analysis in sports science (Foundations of Applied Sports Science: A Starting Point in Sports Performance). In this third installment, I highlight applications of these methods as they were integrated into the offseason programs for a group of NFL draft hopefuls and NFL veterans.

I had the distinct pleasure of working with an old colleague of mine, Erik Jernstrom, who is now the Director of Sports Performance and Fitness with EForce Sports. In addition to Erik directing strength-and-conditioning efforts, we also worked directly with a staff of physical therapists and nutritionists, headed up by Ryan Baugus, DPT. I assisted as a strength coach, and I also managed the sports science and performance analysis for our group. Our staff was tasked with preparing a group of NFL hopefuls for their upcoming combine and pro days, and serving a small group of NFL veterans in their offseason.

We took great effort to design an onboarding and assessment process that best served the needs of each athlete. These are high-level, accomplished football players entering critical junctions in their career: the NFL draft, free agency, or the final year of a contract. Erik, Ryan, and all the staff members were diligent in designing the screening and assessment process, making sure the chosen interventions were justified and would yield results in a timely manner.

As the sports scientist of the group, I knew how important it would be to assess the readiness of each athlete’s recovery as it related to our training goals. This is where the appropriate use of technology would help our group facilitate the process.

Technology and the Offseason

The creation of an interdisciplinary staff in athletics gave me a perfect opportunity to implement my athlete management system, Voyager. Our staff had spent considerable time designing and scheduling our process within our unique high performance team: Ryan has developed a customized screening process as a physical therapist, Erik has multiple assessments and performance tests he implements as a performance coach, and I had elected to use a simplified approach to assessing readiness and recovery. Voyager would allow us to connect each department within our staff into a single hub for our athletes.

Whether by phone, tablet, or computer, each staff member had ready access to key performance indicators daily, and these were simultaneously stored in a database. Perhaps the best part about our athlete management process with Voyager is that it is customized to fit our needs; only the information we wanted to collect was included, and we could create new metrics, forms, and surveys quickly and easily.

Voyager

 

In our system, each athlete filled out a quick recovery questionnaire each morning via their phone. I elected to use a popular five-question/five-point scale used often in the literature1. Athletes received instructions on using Voyager on their phone and also on answering the questionnaire, and learned the importance of the information.

Athletes must understand how a process benefits them if we expect them to adhere to our methods. Share on X

Athlete education is a critical element in sports science: Athletes must understand how the process benefits them if we expect them to adhere to our methods. Erik and I have a history working with most of the athletes in these groups, and the relationships we enjoy are based on trust. This element takes great time and effort to develop, and is central to the effectiveness of not only a sports science process, but to any performance-staff-related endeavor. Data and technology have great importance, but they cannot replace human interactions and relationships.

 

 

In addition to recovery data, we collected data on key performance indicators within strength and conditioning, as outlined by Erik. We were careful to collect data relevant to the goals of each athlete: Clearly, the goals of a quarterback entering the NFL combine are not identical to the goals of a three-year NFL veteran receiver entering the final year of his contract. The athletes do not train in the exact same way, they are not assessed in the exact same manner, and each received individualized considerations in their training and recovery process.

After extensive conversations with the athletes, their agents, and skill coaches, and using scouting feedback, our staff outlined a plan for each athlete. After we outlined the plan and proposed a program, I created metrics in Voyager so that our staff could enter the information during or after training. Instead of keeping track of endless information for each athlete, we focused on relevant performance metrics when building our database.

In addition to training, the use of Voyager showed perhaps the greatest benefits in the recovery process, as the data we collected on recovery helped drive athlete education on individualized recovery interventions. We were able to define sleep behavior patterns and show each athlete their effect on readiness and performance. It’s not as simple as telling an athlete to get eight hours of sleep; the underlying concepts surrounding their sleep behavior ultimately affects the quality of their sleep.

This element took center stage when one of our NFL combine hopefuls exhibited sleep-quality disturbance during a period of travel for meetings and post-season All-Star Bowl games. He exhibited the utmost professionalism by devoting himself to his craft and manipulating his environment to maximize his sleep. During this period, we demonstrated to him the importance of sleep quality by highlighting the way he felt it affected his physical performance. He displayed tremendous self-discipline in his response to the situation, utilizing methods to manage his stress response, relax his mind and body, and ultimately return to a high quality of sleep.

 

On his experiences during the offseason and combine preparation, Erik said:

“Using Voyager as our athlete management system has allowed our entire staff at EForce to more effectively manage and monitor both subjective and objective KPIs for athletes we’re working with that are relevant to their sport. Not only has Voyager helped us drastically decrease our paper trail, but it has also allowed us to more clearly communicate to athletes the interplay and effect of different variables on overall performance. All this has enabled our athletes to train more consistently and free our staff to spend less time working through Excel worksheets.

Voyager allowed us to streamline our own process, and it became a powerful tool for us to drive athlete education. This was a trial run during an intensive period for our staff, but the ease of use and customizability of Voyager gave us all new insights on how to connect to our athletes and clients. It didn’t take us long to start visualizing how Voyager would allow us to provide them with additional services that would help yield real results in performance.”

 

Omegawave

While Voyager allowed our staff to assess recovery data and document progress on key performance indicators, we also used the Omegawave. I have direct experience with the system as both an athlete and a coach, and the privilege of having trained and worked under Mark McLaughlin. There are few people in the world who have trained as many athletes over the past 20 years while using the Omegawave as Mark.

Because I have trained with and learned from Mark since the beginning of my career some 13 years ago, I have an exceptional understanding of not only the utilization of the Omegawave, but also the use of this unique lens when training athletes. The system allows you to understand the potential “cost of doing business” when training your athletes. While we, as strength coaches, are obsessed with programming and performance outcomes, it is critical to understand how our training program affects the athlete, based on their readiness and preparedness. It is mandatory to understand how the functional state of the athlete affects their ability to train specific systems or traits.

Think of the central nervous, cardiovascular, and metabolic exchange systems, or traits like power, strength, endurance, coordination, agility, and functional movement. While many strength coaches become fixated solely on getting athletes bigger and stronger, or spending most of their programming focused on improving movement efficiency, it is critical to understand that these important traits have governing factors.

 

For those not familiar with the current interface of the Omegawave, the home screen gives a summary of the functional state of the CNS, cardiac, and metabolic exchange systems, as well as the Windows of Trainability^™ of the athlete. There has been misunderstanding of this system in the past, as some practitioners decided that the Omegawave is simply a “red light, green light” system. This implies that, based on the quality of your screening results, you are either allowed to train hard or not at all. This is not the case, however, as the specific information each athlete receives in their reading offers critical information on their readiness to best accommodate the timing, type, and amount of training to produce a desired response.

For example, just because the Window of Trainability^™ for strength is not within the highest stratified level (“green,” as of the current version), it does not mean the athlete cannot perform any strength training, nor does it mean that the athlete cannot or should not perform the prescribed strength training workout. Additionally, it does not guarantee that the athlete is not capable of executing a prescribed strength training session to a high level. The screening is communicating the fact that, based on the readiness level of the athlete, performing a strength training session will most likely yield a limited training effect, or could potentially result in a detrimental training effect due to increasing recovery time (think of issues like increased muscle soreness, greater depletion of local metabolic substrates, etc.).

Our staff aimed to have the athletes test on the Omegawave as often as possible, but with realistic expectations. We had space in our facility dedicated to performing the screenings, and based on best-practice methodology developed in the field surrounding heart rate variability measurement reliability, we performed our process in the morning. Though not ideal, we did the screenings at our facility 15 to 30 minutes after the athletes arrived. The issues are obvious when thinking about increased stress due to traffic, morning meal timing, and other problems athletes face when not operating in the vacuum of a research lab environment.

Our staff was very selective about communicating the results of the readings; I believe there is a definite art to this process. A useful tip I can offer is to establish with the athletes early on that this screening process is a “snapshot” rather than a “pass or fail” examination. From my own experience as an athlete, the test itself can create stress, so be mindful that athletes should be allowed to be inquisitive about their results without feeling resigned to a dim fate based on a sub-optimal reading. (Just as Mark McLaughlin joked about me breaking his Omegawave because I tested so poorly early on in our time together.)

Establish with athletes early on that the screening process is a snapshot, not a pass/fail exam. Share on X

Because of our relatively short time frame, our staff focused on only a few metrics from the Omegawave during this first offseason. Functional state of the main systems received attention during each screen, as was the Windows of Trainability^™. The idea of “keeping plan B as close to plan A as possible,” proposed by many coaches in the field, was in full effect during this period. The programming covered many things, and one of the foundational principles was separate sessions devoted to the development of specific systems.

For example, the Monday session for some of our athletes was an anaerobic development day where strength and structural hypertrophy were the main emphasis. Power and speed elements were also trained, but programming was implemented through both the lens of physiological/morphological development and neuromechanical elements (i.e., determining if they are performing fast enough to develop the desired trait). There are many great resources on the SimpliFaster blog regarding velocity considerations for speed and power.

The Omegawave’s Windows of Trainability^™ allowed our staff to understand the individual athlete’s capability for maximizing the training goals of each session. If an Omegawave reading indicated a suboptimal window for the development of speed and power on a Monday session, Erik would use this as a flag when timing sprints, measuring jumps, or observing technique during high-velocity lifting. As a former national junior-level Olympic weightlifter, Erik knows upholding a high quality of work when developing these traits is mandatory.

During instances where readiness was not optimal in the previously mentioned traits, there were often slight reductions in volume, intensity, or both. It did not mean the athletes weren’t going to train hard, but it did mean that we, as coaches, could not be oblivious to the risk of diminished returns on performance from the session. As previously addressed, a suboptimal Omegawave reading does not mean an athlete is not physically capable of achieving a high level of performance. It does, however, indicate that the “cost of doing business” will likely be higher than normal.

Imagine trying to perform the infamous Smolov squat program during the phases where intensity is high and frequent. Sure, you could gut out 5×5 at 90% of a 1RM, but think of feeling strong and powerful during each set and walking out of the gym versus feeling like you need spotters to finish each set and likely crawling out of the gym afterward. In both cases, you complete the 5×5 at 90%, but in the latter instance it takes a much heavier toll. You would probably have more lingering muscle soreness, more acute fatigue, and an overall diminished feeling of perceived recovery in the next days. This is an explicit example of utilizing the Windows of Trainability^™ to guide your training, and it’s also a great tease for investigating programming and recovery methods to maximize optimal readiness.

An additional Omegawave metric our staff focused on was DC potential, or “Direct Potential” of the brain. After long consultations with, and continuing education from, Mark McLaughlin and the Omegawave staff, and the works of Dr. John Sullivan (@BrainAlwaysWins) and others, as well as my own investigations and athletic career, it became explicitly clear that brain function needed to be accounted for in training.

Think of the massive stress that NFL hopefuls are under—moving to a new city to train, keeping a new schedule focused solely on what amounts to intense manual labor, separation from family and friends, learning new skills, mastering and refining old techniques, spending every hour of their day in the spotlight, and being pressured to meet performance standards—while the national sports media scene observes their every move. Their brain health will dictate their ability to manage and cope with these stressors, and a tool like the Omegawave gives a quick snapshot of this system.

A suboptimal Omegawave reading does not mean an athlete is not physically capable of achieving a high level of performance. It does, however, indicate that the ‘cost of doing business’ will likely be higher than normal.

Because our athletes were also doing sport-specific skill work as part of their training program, we elected to utilize the DC potential reading from Omegawave as a lens to prescribe the volume and intensity of this work. One of our NFL veterans had a personal skill coach during this period, and our staff communicated to the athlete and the coach the ideal session duration, rest periods, drill progressions, perceived effort levels, introduction of new drills, reactivity, complexity, and other factors potentially affecting his nervous system.

If he displayed suboptimal DC potential, he was encouraged to focus on his “everyday drills,” allow for more recovery time during repetitions and between drills, do technique reinforcement at variable (read: slower) speeds, and limit the introduction of more complex tasks. When our staff saw optimal DC potential before certain sessions, we would encourage the athlete and the skill coach to explore reactivity to colors, sounds, and numbers; introduce complexity in environmental processing, such as reacting to a defender; and compete in one-on-one situation-specific drills against a defender, if possible.

Within our system, using the Omegawave along with Voyager allowed us to paint a picture of performance to drive athlete education. The relationships our staff developed with each athlete inspired the trust of the athletes. This paid dividends, as they were open and brutally honest with us in recovery questionnaires, feedback, and personal conversations. Being able to show an athlete something like how their continual poor sleep quality was coinciding with poor trends in readiness and stagnation in performance was like pulling open the bedroom shades in the morning. Our staff educated the athletes on the process they were immersed in by visualizing their progress, with its peaks and troughs and plateaus.

Omegawave with Voyager helped us to paint a picture of performance to drive athlete education. Share on X

Enabling the athletes to see these elements firsthand in relatable terms was likely the critical factor enabling the high buy-in we had. The data and technology was a secondary factor to the human element we created: coaches as active listeners who show interest and devotion to improving the athlete, care about their well-being outside of the weight room, and sensitivity to the experiences each athlete brings to the team. There are many strength coaches and allied health professionals who are elite at developing the ecosystem of a program, and they don’t mince words when it comes to establishing a fair and firm approach to leadership in an offseason program. The “ecosystem,” as strength and conditioning coach and sports science coordinator of Navy football, Bryan Miller, has outlined, is often the glue that holds the ship together.

Our offseason program presented a unique challenge where long-term data collection and analysis was not possible. This placed a critical emphasis on the employment of training, therapy, recovery, data, technology, and analysis applications that worked in a short time frame. This highlights a critical, and somewhat controversial, element, particularly in sports science. While data analysis gets much of the attention, it has become explicitly apparent to me and a growing number of coaches in the field that American sports scientists must be able to prove their worth in the short term.

This means that the sports scientist must have a deep knowledge of the sport, training, recovery, and rehabilitation when administering their process. Technical skills in database creation and management, analytics, and visualization are great tools, but anybody can develop these skills with continued education (like watching the right YouTube videos). Having credibility with each member of an allied health and performance team, as well as with sport coaches and athletes, takes a unique blend of specialized experience that cannot be learned online or in a textbook.

Many American sport coaches, particularly American football coaches of all levels, want to see results here and now. An associate of mine at a major school in the Power-5 Conference put it brilliantly when he remarked that, “the first thing that I am asked by coaches is if this technology or method will help us win games, or not.” Sports scientists must also do their part in this scenario by understanding not only the technical and tactical elements of their sport, but also the culture and “ecosystem.” During this current offseason project, if I lacked understanding of Ryan’s goals as a PT, Erik’s goals in strength and conditioning, or the athlete’s goals as a draft prospect or free agent, the wheels would have fallen off the wagon early.

 

Moving forward, our staff wants to outline the parameters of success in the offseason by producing player profiles. Within the Voyager system, creating metrics and assigning them to athletes is a quick and easy process. The idea behind athlete profiling is to highlight the trends of their key performance indicators. Once your staff have identified the KPIs specific to your program, modeling training and recovery interventions to meet these standards should be the goal.

Another feature within the Voyager system is the ability to create a training report for each athlete that targets these KPIs. By setting appropriate data targets for each metric, our staff can see a performance trajectory in real time. This allows us to make corrections in training or recovery before issues present themselves. Are these predictive analytics in action? I would say “no,” mainly because this is simply a coach or allied health practitioner taking action when presented with information that, based on their knowledge and experience, raises a flag. The difference is that, with an athlete management system like Voyager, you have a database your staff can easily access and refer to when making a decision.

About his experience with forming a high-performance team and using technology to supplement his method, Ryan Baugus said: “Finding technology that fits into the principle-based framework of our system is the next frontier; it’s the same game but with tools like Omegawave, FreeLap, and Voyager we have the cheat codes. Any time we can look under the hood from an objective standpoint is very helpful as a clinician. If all of our staff has a convenient and user-friendly way to access and utilize data, the metrics can guide the programming and training. Inter-provider communication and dialogue is paramount in the utilization of an interdisciplinary system. If we are looking at the same performance metrics we can divide the subcomponents into our specific scopes and break down performance improvement into manageable pieces.”

 

So, after a busy offseason in a high-pressure environment, was adding foundational sports science even worth it? I would argue it was, as each of our draft hopefuls landed on teams across the NFL and CFL, and our group of NFL veterans are enjoying new or extended contracts with their teams. Our group of athletes achieved all-time personal bests in physical tests at combines and pro days. Additionally, and perhaps more impressively, some of our athletes regained speed, strength, power, and mechanics that previous team physicians and coaches had doubted would ever be possible. When an NFL hopeful is urged to consider medical retirement due to pain and dysfunction, and then receives training and treatment through a new lens based in objective assessment, it should not be considered a miracle when most of his ailments disappear.

One of our NFL veterans was part of a highly publicized contract negotiation and subsequent trade. I won’t pretend that our sports science process or offseason program was the only reason for his success, as he is easily the most competitive, driven, and dedicated, as well as hardest-working, athlete I have ever been around. I am sure there are times he wanted to take the Omegawave belt and sensor and drive over them in his car! But to his credit, and to the credit of our staff, he took each challenge head-on with the highest level of professionalism. As he continues to use the tools and concepts we have installed, and as he enters this next chapter of his career, I am beyond excited to see what lies ahead.

I think the take-home message of our sports science foundation is simple: you must have your procedures mastered and grounded in a firm understanding of human performance and physiology first. Additionally, you must possess relationship-building and leadership skills to foster a healthy ecosystem within your team environment. This takes time, self-assessment, humility, and a healthy sense of curiosity.

I’ve spoken with athletic directors, athletic administrators, and performance staff members at the highest levels of collegiate and professional sports in the United States about sports science. Opinions range from being ready and eager to implement an entire sports science department to serve 750+ student athletes, to being perfectly content with letting thousands of dollars of equipment collect dust in a weight room closet. It is fascinating to me that, although sports science is not yet well-understood by many people I have spoken with in that population, there are two definitive types of responses. The first is that of curiosity and optimism that sports science offers a way to improve the health and performance of athletes by assisting strength and conditioning coaches, all allied health professionals, and sports coaches. The second response is one of fear that sports science will somehow assess the effectiveness, or lack thereof, of offseason programs or medical treatment outcomes.

Ultimately, the best strength coaches and allied health professionals have already been using concepts from sports science to assess performance for decades. The act of using technology or collecting data is not a new concept, it is merely a modern wrapping on an age-old process of assessment. Clearly, sports science has the capability for providing tremendous performance benefits for athletes. It is our job as coaches and professionals to continue the task of applying it meaningfully and appropriately in practice.

Voyager on Twitter: @Voyager_PTS
Erik Jernstrom on Twitter: @EJStrength
Ryan Baugus on Instagram: RyanBaugus

Reference

1. Buchheit M, Racinais S, Bilsborough J, et al. “Monitoring fitness, fatigue and running performance during a pre-season training camp in elite football players”. J Sci Med Sport 2013; 16(6):550-555.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

 

I am a thief. Everything in my coach’s toolbox is stolen. I scour the Internet for the best coaching articles, troll social media for the best drills, befriend/stalk mentor coaches all over the country, and stock up on coaching videos and programs. I’ve always believed that if I am going to ask student athletes to work hard on the track, I need to do the same off of it.

After the end of last season, I attended two coaching clinics. The first was in Chicago. Coach Tony Holler spoke about timing fly 10s and publishing results. I stole his idea. Now we time our fly 10 times with Freelap and publish the results on social media. Chris Korfist and Dr. Tom Nelson talked about breathing and being activated. I also stole this information. Every athlete in our off-season knows about level 1 activation. We also encourage them to take 20 deep belly breaths when waking up, throughout the day, and before going to bed.

Two weeks later my insane friend and I took a 6-day road trip from El Paso to Boston to attend the Complete Track and Field summer clinic. Coaches from Harvard, Columbia, Brown, UMass, Boston, and Jacksonville University worked with high school athletes on warming up, accelerating, sprinting, jumping, and hurdling. I stole cues, drills, progressions, and ideas. I quickly realized these coaches were not just smart—really smart—but also that they conveyed their information in a simple manner through effective instruction.

Meeting coaches like Holler, Korfist, Nelson, Latif Thomas, Cal Dietz, Rueben Jones, Marc Mangiocotti, Joel Smith, Tony Veney, Dan Fitcher, Kebba Tolbert and so many others makes you quickly realize how little you know. But then you get excited because they are so willing to share their experience and knowledge. Ultimately what matters most to me is transferring what I learn and applying it for the benefit of my athletes and program in a simple and effective way.

I am a thief. Everything in my coach’s toolbox is stolen. Share on X

This aim was especially evident when Ron Grigg, Director of Cross Country/Track and Field at Jacksonville University, presented a fascinating lecture about three simple yet valuable drills: skipping for height, skipping for distance, and hurdle gallops. I left his clinic convinced that these drills could transform our jumping program.

Let me begin with the observation that the majority of jumping practice sessions I have witnessed make my heart ache for the kids. I am stupefied by some of the practice norms many coaches allow their athletes to create. For example, I’ve seen some middle school coaches let 15–20 kids practice multiple full-length approaches with an entire jumping sequence—including landings. High school coaches set up high hurdles within a few feet of the board so long jumpers can “jump” over the hurdles and create more height. They also set up mini-hurdles on the runway so triple jumpers can bound for more distance even though their form becomes completely compromised.

In the past, I’ve been guilty of silly or unnecessary drills. As a younger coach I believed that “more was better.” Simplifying is difficult, but that is Coach Grigg’s point with these three drills. If they are the only ones you do, you will keep it simple for your athletes, and they will still achieve their goals.

“These drills are like the ingredients on a spice rack,” Coach Grigg told me. “You can create something really good if you use the ingredients properly or you can create something rotten if they are not understood or misused. When done correctly the skips can turn into high-level drills, or when done poorly they can look very much like second grade recess time.”

He added, “You have to be able to watch, and know what you are looking to see. Being able to teach the very basics of posture, takeoff foot patterns, swinging segments usage, and displacement depends on observation.”

Video 1. The three key fundamentals include posture, takeoff foot pattern, and swinging segments.

Posture

When doing these drills, athletes should have proper posture. These posture cues also transfer to sprinters. Through the usage of the drills, Coach Grigg is “trying to use as much commonality between sprinting and jumping. The skills they are learning will make them better sprinters and athletes.”

The posture when performing the drills should be:

1. Neutral head — head down during acceleration is WRONG
2. Neutral pelvis — Stomach tight, back flat, hips up, butt tucked, belly button to spine: stable yet mobile
3. Absence of forward or backward lean

Sprint coaches will recognize many of the same cues used during acceleration and max velocity. Chins tucked or heads down forcefully during acceleration compromise foot contact placement (below or behind hips), mechanics, and the angles athletes are trying to achieve during acceleration. The postural cues help guide athletes during these specific low-force application drills, and they can transfer over during higher velocity drills and sprinting.

Takeoff Foot Patterns

The continuous nature of the drills allows athletes to feel the takeoff foot patterns they need to achieve when long jumping and triple jumping. These are the direct concepts Coach Grigg emphasizes:

1. Isometric preparation of ankles (and quadriceps)—dorsiflexed toe or 90-degree angle between the foot and shin. Strong stable ankles (and knees) at ground contact. Allows for bridging position during penultimate step.
2. Located under or slightly in front of COM to conserve horizontal velocity
3. Heel/toe rolling or flat rolling contacts (“Like a rocking chair,” Coach Grigg says)
4. Shin perpendicular at full foot support
5. PUSH on the ground, NOT pull

These explanations regarding takeoff foot patterns apply to the penultimate and jump steps in the long jump and the takeoff step in the triple jump. The biggest takeaway for athletes is being able to continually repeat these drills throughout the season and feel the takeoff foot patterns at low velocities. They learn what their feet should be doing and apply this knowledge when jumping at higher velocities.

Swinging Segments

Swinging segments refer to how athletes use their shoulders, arms, hips, and legs during the drills. The drills are introduced with lower forces and smaller movements to emphasize the feel and movement of the body. A common error is to move body parts and not the body. For example, an athlete may drive the arm without blocking and drive the knee high, yet the body doesn’t displace vertically. Through progressions, the athlete learns to move the body through smaller force applications, smaller ranges of motion, then gradually increase the forces—which will in turn increase the displacement and ranges of motion.

Eventually, skips for height ask athletes to generate as much as height as possible, and skips for distance ask athletes to cover as much distance as possible. However, many aspects needed to create successful horizontal jumps are often wasted motions when athletes participate in the traditional forms of these exercises. Done properly, the swinging segments will create:

1. Large and powerful amplitudes of movement
2. Synchronized movements that help timing and rhythms
3. Blocking—body parts STOP while the body continues to move

As the athlete’s shoulders, arms, hips, and legs generate movement, blocking/stopping them allows the body to continue moving and synchronize the timing of the jumps.

Fundamental Outcome

When done correctly and efficiently, an athlete’s posture, takeoff foot contact pattern, and swinging segments create elastic energy and displacement. Coach Grigg cues athletes to “move your body, not just your body parts,” essentially eliminating wasted motions and to “push, swing, and block” all occurring simultaneously) to help them time and synchronize the drills—and eventually the horizontal jumps.

Skips for Height

When skipping for height the athlete will be cued to do the following:

1. Move body up and forward
2. High hips, low knees
3. Like a soccer header, or a basketball rebound

Video 2. Skips for height.

A notable difference between a power skip for height and this one is that athletes are expected to keep their knees low and hips high. To create this movement, athletes feel the swing in their arms and then block the swinging motion. As the arm opposite the jump leg passes the hip on the downward stroke it will be blocked, but the hips will continue to rise, and the athlete’s body will continue upward and forward. The arm driving forward opposite the swing leg will also be blocked. This causes the swing leg knee and thigh to stop moving up and then work back down into a straightened position, thereby allowing the swing leg foot to work down below the hip. This position resembles sprinting action where the free leg will back down toward the track beneath the hip (center of mass).

Skips for Distance

When skipping for distance the athlete will be cued to do the following:

1. Move body forward and up
2. Feel your takeoff foot behind you
3. Push the thigh forward
4. Block the thigh low

Video 3. Skips for distance.

In this form of skipping for distance, the arms will be blocked in a similar but even lower manner as they are in skips for height. The jump leg, however, serves a different purpose. The coach cues athletes to feel their takeoff foot behind them, allowing the body to move forward and up. The athlete pushes the swing leg hip and thigh forward and then blocks them low. As a result, the free leg works back down into a straightened position, allowing the shin to open up and create an acute—or close to a 90-degree—angle with the swing leg dorsiflexed foot.
The importance of this cue transfers to the first phase of the triple jump. I believe we spend more than enough time cueing the jump leg in the triple jump but often neglect the swing leg. If we cue the athlete to push the swing leg thigh forward then block it low, it works back down as previously stated. Additionally, it sets up an elastic swing during the hop phase.

Hurdle Gallops

When athletes jump over a low barrier or a mini-hurdle/wicket, they are cued to do the following:

1. High hips, low knees
2. Feel the swing
3. Feel the block

Video 4. Hurdle gallops.

Hurdle gallops take the requirements of both skipping exercises and ask the athlete to apply them. As a result, the drill requires its own set of skills. During skips for height, the primary movement of the body is vertical (up) and then out. During skips for distance, the primary movement is horizontal (out) and then up. Hurdle gallops ask the athletes for equal levels of both horizontal and vertical displacements due to the placement and height of the hurdles. Each coach will have to play around with the distances based on their athletes’ skill and mastery. Coach Grigg places 6” banana hurdles about 3 meters apart because of the skill and ability of his Jacksonville female athletes.

Whatever the distance, athletes must generate enough force application to jump over the hurdle, and enough distance to be in position to clear the ones that follow. Too much height and the athlete will not be able to jump over the next hurdle. Conversely, too much distance and the athlete will knock over the hurdles by not generating enough height.

While posture, takeoff foot placement, and swinging segments remain the same in hurdle gallops, a combination of height and distance are required to be successful. You can make this drill more challenging by having athletes gallop over higher hurdles or increasing the distance between the hurdles—or both.

Conclusion

Coach Grigg notes that if you watch an athlete walk, then jog, and finally sprint, you will notice many of the same patterns. Walking and jogging at low speeds transfer to how an athlete warms up, skips, jogs, and ultimately sprints. This is especially evident in competition. Athletes—especially those with a low training age—tend to revert to what is most comfortable or natural. These three drills allow the coach to cue proper posture, proper foot strike, and synchronization of upper body and lower body movements that will transfer to sprinting. Proper takeoff foot patterns, swing and blocking movements, and displacement will transfer to horizontal jumpers.

We coach in an era where complicated, and dazzling drills are easily accessible online and coaches buy into training programs/videos loaded with overly complex, yet compelling and “sexy” drills. As coaches we need to focus on the fundamentals even if it they are not “sexy” because that will ultimately get our athletes the results they strive to achieve. Echoing motivational speaker Jim Rohn, Coach Grigg ended his presentation by saying, “Success is neither magical nor mysterious. Success is the natural consequence of consistently applying basic fundamentals.”

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

If you are an avid reader of SimpliFaster, you will notice the frequent reference to electromyography (EMG) studies throughout the blog’s articles. The goal of this review is to inform readers about the science and application of EMG experimentation. Not all readers will have the need to perform EMG readings on themselves or their athletes, but everyone involved with sports in some capacity should be aware of the requirements for measuring muscle activity.

The ability to understand EMG research and apply the science is a valuable benefit when making decisions on exercise selection and other choices in training and rehabilitation. This guide includes instructions on performing your own EMG experiments, as well as determining when you need additional instrumentation or expertise to analyze the collected data.

What Is Electromyography?

Electromyography is a measurement of electrical activity in the muscles during movement. EMG is used in both medical and research settings, and the data collected is valuable to learn what is happening with muscle and motion. Depending on the location of the muscle group, users of EMG will either perform surface data collection or, if deep muscles need to be measured, fine wires are used for intramuscular insertion.

An electromyogram records the signal strength to the muscle or set of muscles. EMG is an indirect measure of muscle force, since it’s only picking up the neurological activity during the movement, and not the direct muscle tension. Most instruments that measure EMG send the signals to a computer or other hardware tool to filter the data, so it can be displayed and analyzed later by a trained professional. A valid interpretation depends upon a strong knowledge of both movement science and muscle physiology, and other simultaneous measurements are taken to cross-validate and ensure confidence in the findings.

The Value of Internal EMG Data for Coaches and Sports Medicine

Performance coaches and sports medicine professionals have relied on research to provide clues and insights into the actions of muscles during sports tasks and exercises, whether for performance or rehabilitation. The arguments against EMG are not because of the science or technology, but the contextual design of the studies—the specific exercises and subject populations. If you have direct access to EMG instrumentation and can test your own athletes, it’s far more useful than depending only on external studies.

The application of EMG is not just for research. EMG is also an important tool for biofeedback during training and rehabilitation. In addition to quantitative feedback for the athlete while performing physical tasks or rudimentary rehab exercises, EMG is a great teaching tool. Clinical settings, as well as group training, rarely use EMG to assist the professionals involved, but new technology is streamlining the process and athletes are more engaged in their data now.

EMG technology has come a long way since the 1950s and 1960s, but it’s still the same tool when you strip away the newer innovations and get right to its core. The major difference is that the transmission of the data from athletes is wireless now, and the data can also synchronize with other sensors and instruments.

Whether you perform your own experiments or only read the experiments done in formal research, being informed on the nuances of data collection and interpretation is vital to understand what the information means. Coaches and sports medicine professionals can be tempted to scan through the materials and methods parts of studies and skip to the conclusions or summary charts, but they then risk missing the true results evident in the paper. Read the full study and even the citations at the end of a research paper. It is important to judge the data and the conclusion of the author(s) separately.

What Information Can EMG Provide to Professionals?

Nearly all of the studies that use EMG tend to be investigations into popular exercises in strength and conditioning or rehabilitation. Many landmark studies on sports tasks are very popular and have a large impact on other studies—an important ranking measurement in research—due to their value in revealing what is happening in athletic motion. Simply stated, training and rehabbing athletes can get a hint from EMG as to what is happening with the muscles involved in sport and what exercises could help prepare them for their particular sport.

EMG is not just about which muscles work the most during exercise; it provides a vast amount of information that can help everyone in sport solve problems better. For example, EMG can help measure the rate of force development (RFD), track coordination changes from beginner to advanced athletes, observe symmetry and asymmetry in gait, and even determine the effects of pain and fatigue on older populations. EMG provides a wealth of information that transcends sports and the field of physical therapy. Electromyography connects to other fields of study as well.

EMG is not just about which muscles work the most during exercise; it provides a vast amount of information that can help everyone in sport solve problems better.

Most of the arguments in support of investments in EMG education and equipment cite the ability to get more information than the naked eye can reveal. Another benefit is that the information is objective, so that everyone can agree on it and decide on an intervention. Dysfunctional muscles are not just a weakness or size issue (cross-sectional)—there’s often a less obvious factor that can’t be left to guesswork. The use of EMG on athletes in team or college environments adds another layer of confidence that what is being done in training and rehab is managed properly.

The Requirements for Collecting EMG Data from Athletes

Collecting EMG readings does require some experience and expertise, but the demand of collecting data isn’t overwhelming. The biggest challenge isn’t the use of the software or other technology; it’s having the athlete follow directions, and also keeping the exercises consistent when performing a group analysis. EMG can be a perfect n=1 experiment, especially with biofeedback during return to play after an injury, but team or sports analysis is extremely difficult to do with complex motions because of styles and body types involved. The variability of EMG data can be misinterpreted as inconsistency or inaccuracy, but the true cause is likely the subjects rather than the measurement integrity.

Defining an event, or when a sporting action starts and stops, is difficult, and is a primary reason why video cameras or other tools synchronize with EMG. A continuous recording is hard to interpret, and a raw signal doesn’t fully explain what is happening in time and space. EMG is especially valuable for a time series or time course of events, rather than just being distilled to peak and average values of gross movements. Activity, the term used in EMG to summarize the nervous system providing a signal, is basically just a rise and fall of microvolts from the muscle. More electrodes placed at key muscles will create a wider, more-detailed picture of what is happening in the task being measured. This will, of course, require more analysis later. The comparison of relationships between limbs or muscle groups is extremely valuable to professionals in performance and therapy, and most of the superficial muscles are propulsive in nature.

Intramuscular EMG is usually performed for deep muscles or small muscles that simply can’t be read by electrodes. While intramuscular, or fine wire, EMG may sound painful, the wire is very thin and thread-like, making it surprisingly comfortable for most subjects being measured. Some athletes need to shave the testing area, such as muscle groups in the legs, and practitioners usually isometrically test the muscle group with a voluntary maximal effort or maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) to normalize the data.

Subject motivation will make a comparison limited, but there’s an expectation that using a contraction of near maximal effort will gain a perspective of the magnitude of activity. Each athlete will have to perform an isolated muscle contraction isometrically for each muscle recruited, thus making data collection take a little longer, but this is also common with other data sets from other sensors. Electrode placement is important as well, since some areas of the body are especially congested and can cause either crosstalk (false readings from other muscles) or misinterpretation from not knowing what muscle is being analyzed.

Common Errors in the Use of EMG in Research and Clinical Settings

Even researchers can make mistakes with EMG, since the instruments and environment can interfere with the collection of a pure signal. EMG is prone to motion artifacts when movements are fast and violent; thus, high-speed and high-force activities sometimes give false readings. Some resources have compiled a comprehensive list of the causes of errors, but most issues with collecting quality data are due to the limits of the technology and the way that subjects respond to instruction.

• Normalization, or creating a MVIC, is not a perfect process and subject errors are common.
• Electrodes can fail in different ways and require very precise placement. Additionally, not all muscle groups are ideal for EMG recording.
• Athletic motions or exercises are not always repeatable or easily captured, due to the subject’s reaction to having electrodes applied to their skin and body.

EMG recording, like any measurement, is only as good as the user and the equipment applied. Some bodies and some sports movements or exercises are easier to analyze because of very trivial but important factors, such as keeping the electrodes on the body in real-world settings. For example, sweat or ballistic actions will make electrodes fall off, even if elastic adhesive is used. Even an electrode staying on the skin when recording high-velocity movements is not necessarily a sign of a good reading, as skin will slide and not stay precisely on the muscle group like it does during slower activities. As stated earlier, manual isometric muscle contractions commonly create errors because new exercises are still foreign to athletes. Since experienced practitioners don’t always motivate the test subject enough or trust that the effort was maximal without objective measurement, a perfect MVIC baseline is hard to establish.

An athlete will naturally, and unknowingly, change their motion when they are aware that they’re being measured or tested. This is common with all measurements, as the simple placement of a camera during training may result in changes to technique or increases in effort. Some athletes are especially sensitive to having tactile sensors on their body, and respond negatively to the measurement because it’s distracting. No matter how accurate or precise an instrument is, the quality of the measurement relies on the quality of the action performed by the athlete. Having the athlete replicate in the lab what they do on the field is important to researchers, but in clinical settings and coaching environments, where the therapy room or field is actually the lab, repeated uses can’t disturb technique as practice time is sacred.

The quality of the EMG measurement relies on the quality of the action performed by the athlete. Share on X

Even exercise events are difficult to measure, due to motion or technique variability that is large enough to taint the data. The nature of fatigue requires the need to average repeated bouts for a valid assessment. Measuring groups becomes especially difficult when the athletes have different levels of strength and size. In general, the more explosive and complicated the movement, the less accurate the EMG information will be, but the data is still useful enough to collect. Overall, the challenges of acquiring a set of clean EMG readings are not so insurmountable that it’s not worthwhile; it just means professionals using the measurements must be consistent and thorough.

How to Interpret EMG Signals and Draw Conclusions

After data is collected, interpretation and in-depth analysis are required to solve problems or summarize athletic events. EMG signals require filtering so the readings can be converted to actual values for comparison. Several filtering options exist, and most of them “clean up” the readings so a simpler representation can be viewed and charted. In addition to each individual recording, the group of recordings is often averaged or statistically analyzed as a whole with additional software. Due to the differences between each subject, the flaw with summarizing a group of recordings by a large population is that the variability can be misleading. On the other hand, not having the variability of a large population can bias or skew data because of small sample sizing.

Interpretation of the EMG recording is a combination of statistical and mechanical evaluation of what happened over time. Most practitioners break down the activity into sequences or partial actions in a timeline. Published research using EMG analysis has divided exercises into eccentric and concentric actions, like most strength exercises, but more complex athletic motions are done differently. In general, specific milestones in each sporting action, from start to finish, are dissected so comprehension is easier for both the reader and the scientist.

EMG is often paired with other instruments, such as force plates and video capture equipment, to create deeper analysis. Extreme analysis is possible, such as in-shoe pressure, motion capture, and physiological recordings. Longer capture periods can identify fatigue, due to the power output diminishing over the time course of the data collection. On average, more data sets help define both the context and meaning behind EMG.

There’s no perfect science to drawing conclusions with EMG, as it can be abused and misused because of the accessibility of the instrumentation. For example, just because an EMG reading is higher for an exercise doesn’t mean the muscle recruitment is truly better. Again, passive and active contractions are complicated events in muscle physiology, and higher average or peak values for a motion don’t indicate superiority. Conversely, EMG readings done properly are valid assessments of neuromuscular activity.

Muscle activation is higher or lower based on mechanical and conscious awareness of the recorded subject. A subject isometrically contracting a muscle group because they are guarding against injury or just conscious of the electrode can fool even an experienced practitioner of EMG, so expertise must go beyond just using the equipment and being in the field area tested. EMG data is not difficult to collect or analyze, it just requires a good advance plan to properly design an experiment and know what you want to eventually discover.

Popular Clinical and Training Facility Uses for EMG

The final piece of EMG science is its application in settings that are not research-based. Clinical and performance settings have more demanding needs in terms of time and efficiency, and EMG does add some preparation time before and additional analysis later. The overarching value of electromyography is its objective feedback, either instantly or gradually, for athletes. Generally, EMG is used in applied settings for these four reasons:

• To quantify a meaningful coordinative neuromuscular asymmetry beyond force production or speed.
• To benchmark changes in return-to-play training and follow-up in the years after completion of rehabilitation.
• To provide immediate biofeedback for athletes learning and mastering a skill or performing an exercise.
• To acquire new information on a specific sporting task to model better performance or more resilience to injury.

The common argument against EMG is not about its validity, but the practical need of getting a job done with little time. Most coaches and sports medicine therapists simply don’t have much time on their hands and athletes are somewhat apprehensive about getting data with electrodes, even if when placed on the surface of the skin. The amount of time needed before, during, and after EMG isn’t as large as it was in the past, due to advancements in wearable technology and better automation with software. In summary, a few extra minutes may save days and weeks if used judiciously, and best practice is not readily available in the clinical and applied performance arena today. With the rise of smart fabrics, the option of using EMG as a monitoring tool is promising.

Two main areas where EMG can influence sport are the development and the sometimes-necessary rehab of athletes. Training typically has higher demands in workflow because larger groups are involved, and rehabilitation usually has a better staff-to-athlete ratio. Both performance and medical practitioners need objective indications of change, and EMG is a more direct measure of muscle function than eyeballing alone. Combined with a talented and experienced professional, EMG adds more confidence to the true progress of the session, or can reveal regression if the athlete has a setback.

Without oversimplifying, medical professionals seek better balance to reduce injury occurrence or improve success after injury. Generally, performance staff wants to maintain ability or improve the development of athletic qualities. Both departments or fields have commonalities, but their responsibilities for injury diagnosis and training plans differentiate them. In modern sport, medical and performance roles are very hard to separate because training principles are applicable to both roles. The point where one role ends and the other begins is more ambiguous than ever.

Most EMG applications can be distilled if a muscle is underactive or overactive, or lacks specific timing with coordination. It can be easily argued that athletes will return with visual symmetry or coordination that seems efficient, but the muscle activity could reveal that more time is needed to be ready. As EMG proliferates in the clinical setting, better treatments and more effective training programs will evolve.

Deciding Whether EMG Is Appropriate for Your Environment

Electromyography is not for everyone, but nearly any level of sport can access the information without a major undertaking. EMG in research is far different than in a clinical setting, so if you are working with groups, most will find it difficult to apply. Several opportunities exist with EMG data, such as experimentation on athletic tasks and exercises, as well as return-to-play conditions. Nearly any team can make progress by adding EMG into their setting, but knowing the fundamental science behind it is a necessary starting point.

References and Suggested Research

1. Dimitrova N.A. & Dimitrov G.V. Interpretation of EMG changes with fatigue: Facts, pitfalls, and fallacies. J Electromyography Kinesiology. 2003 Feb:13(1) 13-36.
2. Farina, D., Negro, F., Gazzoni, M. & Enoka, R.M. Detecting the unique representation of motor unit action potentials in the surface electromyogram. Journal of Neurophysiology. 2008; 100(3), 1223-1233.
3. Guissard N. & Hainaut, K. EMG and mechanical changes during sprint start at different front block obliquities. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1992; 24:1257-1263
4. Maffiuletti N.A., Aagaard P., Blazevich A.J., Folland J., Tillin N. & Duchateau J. Rate of force development: Physiological and methodological considerations. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2016; 116:1091-1116.
5. Massó N., Rey F., Romero D., Gual G. & Costa L. Surface electromyography applications in the sport. Apunts Med Esport. 2010; 45(165):121-130.
6. Mero, A., & Komi, P.V. Electromyographic activity in sprinting at speeds ranging from sub‐maximal to supra‐maximal. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise. 1987; 19(3): 266‐274.
7. Reaz M.B.I., Hussain M.S. & Mohd-Yasin F. Techniques of EMG signal analysis: Detection, processing, classification and applications. Biological Procedures Online. Springer-Verlag; 2006; 8(1):163-3.
8. Vigotsky A.D., Ogborn D. & Phillips S.M. Motor unit recruitment cannot be inferred from surface EMG amplitude and basic reporting standards must be adhered to. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015 Dec 24.

Antioxidants and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) help maximize training gains and minimize recovery, especially when taken after exercise. In the appropriate dose, antioxidants accelerate recovery by reducing inflammatory damage. BCAAs also accelerate recovery and help synthesize muscle proteins.

Antioxidants, Adaptation, and Inflammation

Intense physical exercise creates an inflammatory stress reaction within the body that produces both adaptive and maladaptive physiologic responses. Antioxidants can eliminate additional stress by converting reactive oxygen species (ROS) to less reactive molecules.

So far, researchers have not determined whether taking antioxidant supplements during training encourages adaptation. ³

Researchers do know that, if ROS accumulate excessively, athletes may experience such overtraining symptoms as chronic fatigue. ³ Uncontrolled oxidation can also cause lipid, protein, and DNA damage, which diminish cellular function. ³ DNA damage, in particular, can interfere with the DNA’s positive adaptation to exercise-induced stress. ³ And disturbances in our homeostatic balance may affect the function of our metabolic, neuroendocrinologic, oxidative, physiological, psychological, and immunologic systems.

A low dietary intake of antioxidants may decrease our body’s ability to combat the build-up of ROS during exercise. ³ An excessive intake of antioxidants, however, can cause the opposite reaction and suppress oxidation reduction at the cellular level. This hinders the beneficial effects of exercise on our cells.

Consequentially, ingesting antioxidants can prevent adaptation during and after exercise. One study, for example, showed that taking 1,000 IU of Vitamin C and 400 IU of Vitamin E inhibited training-induced increases in skeletal muscle protein.³ Prolonged antioxidant supplementation may also reduce oxidation. However, there are no long-term studies about this specifically. ³

Antioxidants such as Co-enzyme Q10, tart cherry juice, and pomegranate juice can accelerate recovery by reducing inflammatory damage. ³ There seems to be an optimal dose of antioxidants to create an adaptive, anabolic, regenerative, and enhanced state of performance and recovery (see figure below). We need more research to solidify the reference ranges for athletes. ³

For testing purposes, most studies consist of an acute bout of exercise to induce drastic muscular damage. Researchers then compare supplementation against a control for immediate study.

BCAAs for Muscle Protein Synthesis and Recovery

It’s widely accepted that BCAAs are essential for supporting recovery and optimal performance health. Since BCAAs regulate skeletal muscle protein synthesis and accelerate recovery, researches examined whether BCAAs would help calorie-restricted athletes undergoing a heavy resistance training regimen retain lean body mass.²

During the study’s eight-week body building program, athletes took 14g BCAAs pre- and post-workout while a comparative group took carbohydrate-based placebos. The BCAA group lost fat mass and maintained lean body mass, while the carbohydrate group lost lean mass and body mass.

BCAA study group lost fat & maintained lean body mass; placebo group lost lean & body mass. Share on X

Both groups increased the 1RM in the squat, but the BCAA group improved more significantly. In the 1RM max for the bench press, the BCAA group improved, while the carbohydrate group decreased in strength. The proposed theory on the mechanism behind the success of BCAAs for maintaining body composition and improving strength has to do with their effect on the hormones responsible for protein synthesis.

Exercise induces a change in the balance of hormone levels after exercise. Testosterone, insulin, and cortisol, particularly, become elevated. ¹ Testosterone, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor are anabolic hormones, meaning they favor muscle growth, whereas cortisol is a catabolic stress hormone favoring muscle breakdown.

It’s ideal to keep anabolic hormones running strong after exercise to promote muscle growth and repair and to relax cortisol levels to prevent the reversal of this repair process. ¹ One study aimed to find the effect BCAAs’ had on these hormone levels when taken in a 200mg/kg dose thirty minutes before exercise. ¹ Twenty young soccer players in this randomized, double-blind study were split into supplement or placebo groups.

In the BCAA group, serum insulin and testosterone were significantly higher than the placebo group after exercise. There was no difference in cortisol concentrations between the two groups. This indicates that BCAA supplementation may contribute to muscle protein synthesis as a direct result of elevated anabolic hormones after exercise.

Foods Rich in BCAAs and Antioxidants

BCAAs can be ingested naturally from animal products such as chicken, fish, and eggs. Vegans and vegetarians can find BCAAs in beans, lentils, nuts, and soy protein.

Fruits high in antioxidants are cranberries, blueberries, and blackberries. Beans, artichokes, and Russet potatoes are at the top of the list for vegetables while pecans, walnuts, and hazelnuts are the highest-ranked nuts.

Of course, if adequate dietary intake is not feasible, high-quality supplementation can accomplish the same goals.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Atashak, S., Baturak, K., Azarbayjani, M. A., Ghaderi, M., & Azizbeigi, K. (2014). “Hormonal Responses to Acute Resistance Exercise After Branched-Chain Amino Acids Supplementation.” International Medicine Journal, 22(1), 1-5. Uploaded February 14, 2015.
2. Dudgeon, W. D., Kelley, E. P., & Scheett, T. P. (2016). “In a single-blind, matched group design: branched-chain amino acid supplementation and resistance training maintains lean body mass during a caloric restricted diet.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13(1). doi:10.1186/s12970-015-0112-9.
3. Slattery, K., Bentley, D., & Coutts, A. J. (2015). “The Role of Oxidative, Inflammatory and Neuroendocrinological Systems During Exercise Stress in Athletes: Implications of Antioxidant Supplementation on Physiological Adaptation During Intensified Physical Training.” Sports Medicine, 45(4), 453-471. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0282-7.

 

Recovery is no longer a word looked down upon by coaches, trainers, and hard-core fitness enthusiasts. Instead, they are beginning to realize the multiple improvements that happen when they take the time to allow the body to recover from activity. After all, physiological adaptations occur during recovery. Our systems remodel and rebuild during rest periods, and sleep, nutrition, and hydration are so important during this time. So how can we accompany these aspects of recovery to promote improved and optimal outcomes that support a more demanding training stimulus later?

After years of rest being looked at as “wimpy and weak,” most coaches and trainers are now accepting it as an important part of the training spectrum. While there are plenty of modalities, theories, and practices, the focus of this article will be on the benefit of compression therapy. Many forms of compression therapy exist, from manual therapies to socks, sleeves, and pneumatic devices. I will discuss one of the more popular pneumatic compression devices, the NormaTec Pulse Recovery System.

It’s Not Just Static Compression

NormaTec has been a leader in the industry for years at the professional and collegiate levels. Recently, their presence in the private sector has begun to grow as therapists, trainers, coaches, and private facilities all start to invest in compression technology. This has come about because of feedback and, more importantly, athletes making requests as they return to these settings.

The difference between NormaTec and other compression modalities is that NormaTec uses a patented dynamic pulse massage pattern, as compared to the static compression (squeezing) of other systems on the market. This means that NormaTec’s compression starts distally on the targeted limb segment and works its way proximally to promote lymph and venous return toward the heart for dispersion and distribution of metabolites. By ridding the metabolites from soft tissue, it promotes a quicker healing response, which leads to improvement in muscle recovery time. When coaches combine this with proper rest and nutrition in an individualized way, we can directly impact the success of our programs.

When combined with proper rest, NormaTec can directly impact the success of our program. Share on X

The recovery process begins as soon as the workout, training session, or game ends. It is important to know how we can influence recovery with a system like NormaTec. The pulse system provides gradients of air pressure that will mold to the shape of the athlete’s limb, providing a standardized force across all segments in a circumferential manner. When you combine this with a timed pulse, the NormaTec system promotes optimal metabolite dispersion to promote recovery. Its seven levels of resistance and options to concentrate on certain zones give you plenty of choices and you can focus the intervention to adapt to your athlete’s needs.

 

Another little-discussed aspect of compression therapy is the sense of peace that it brings by providing the recipient with a proprioceptive pressure that assists system stability and overall relaxation. We all know the sense of calm that we feel when tucked under a thick blanket or during a firm hug; the NormaTec uses deep pressure touch stimulation to give that same deep feeling. It stimulates calmness in the central nervous system, helping to shift the person towards a more parasympathetic state through the release of serotonin and melatonin—chemicals that promote happiness, elevated moods, and sleep.

The addition of the NormaTec to our programs has been an effective influence post training, as it also helps athletes to focus on other aspects of recovery. Once athletes feel and experience the benefits of the NormaTec, it serves as a great introduction to many other recovery methods. A simple 20-30 minutes in the boots allows us to work on breathing drills and switching off from the sympathetic nervous system into a more parasympathetic dominant state (which is still a battle for most athletes today). It is in this way that the NormaTec can induce both physiologic and psychological changes to promote improved recovery and performance.

Special thanks to co-author Jon Herting. Jon Herting, PT, DPT, CSCS, ACSM CE-P has been involved in rehabilitation and strength and conditioning for 10 years and has built a reputation among athletes as a clinician who promotes quick results and optimal outcomes. Jon has worked with athletes of all levels, from adolescent to Olympic level, and believes in a holistic approach to rehab, believing there is not a distinct line between rehab and the training process. Jon is a partner in The Training Room of Garnet Valley in Philadelphia, PA, currently serves as adjunct faculty at Widener University and has developed several continuing education courses for clinicians and certified strength and conditioning professionals based around assessment and rehabilitation techniques.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

Parents play a paramount role in the development of a child-athlete. The relationship is built around motivation, propulsion, and encouragement, as well as physical, emotional, and financial support. Parental support has been correlated to youth participation level in sports, the child’s physical and mental well-being, and his or her ultimate success and enthusiasm for the sport. A study by Nunomura and Oliveira (2013) investigated this correlation further with regard for the careers of young gymnasts, and its findings are applicable across all fields of athletics.

Aim for the Middle Ground of Parenting

In today’s sporting culture, the emphasis is largely placed on winning, so essentially “if you’re not first, you’re last.” Some parents tend to get wrapped up in this socially driven environment, and fill with pride and arrogance over the accomplishments of their children. This can be detrimental to the athlete’s well-being on a number of levels.

A young athlete’s success should never be utilized as a means of status or personal intent. Parents need to be able to differentiate the needs of their children from their own. While living vicariously through our youth is acceptable, forcing them to live out our unfulfilled dreams is not healthy. If social comparisons and negative criticism drive the parent-athlete relationship, confidence levels can quickly plummet. Excessive parent “coaching” can result in undue stress for the athlete, which quickly leads to performance anxiety, fatigue, burnout, and loss of enthusiasm and drive for the sport.

It is vital that parents realize a sport does not define their child. Share on X

On the opposite end of the spectrum are the under-involved parents. This type of parent lacks any sort of enthusiasm or engagement for the athlete’s goals and endeavors. The lack of support and encouragement can quickly become disheartening for a young athlete, making it more likely that his or her dedication to the pursuit of athletics will wane.

The middle ground of parenting provides flexibility for the athlete’s progress and milestones within the sport. The moderately involved parent provides adequate support without controlling the athlete’s every move; feedback is sought from the coaches in order to establish the best developmental path for the athlete. The parent can be firm in enforcing proper values and morals in the child, such as teamwork, sportsmanship, and work ethic, though without the authoritarian overload.

It is vital that parents realize the sport does not define their child. They must foster intrinsic values, confidence, self-esteem, and positivity in all aspects of life, so that if the athletic career deteriorates, there is still something for which to be optimistic. Dedication is important in the pursuit of any goal, but only if there is true desire for that goal, and never at the expense of physical or mental well-being.

Parents should hold high expectations for their child only as long as their child’s enthusiasm and passion for the sport exists; as soon as the athlete becomes disenchanted, the parent must stop forcing these expectations on the child. It is important to remain sensitive to a young athlete’s developmental needs in order to maximize the long-term success in both athletics and life in general.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

Nunomura, M. & Oliveira, M. S. (2013). Parents’ support in the sports career of young gymnasts. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 5(1), 5-17.

Central Nervous System (CNS) fatigue is a phenomenon mentioned in training room conversations, at lectures, and in coaches’ forums. The term itself seems to be well-accepted. But as one delves into investigations on its etiology beyond a Google search into the realms of peer-reviewed exercise science, clear applied scientific information becomes vague and scarce.

Introduction

Much of the work done on mechanisms behind CNS fatigue offers reasons why fatigue results from prolonged endurance exercise. There’s also research into output-related illnesses such as chronic fatigue syndrome. When we switch gears and examine CNS fatigue under a physical preparation lens, information to substantiate the biological theory that it results from high-intensity (speed and power) exercise becomes much more elusive.

As coaches, however, we likely agree that we cannot plan for successive high-intensity sessions without negative consequences. Or can we? Perhaps we do not know. Or perhaps it’s highly individual or subject to the logistical and traditional constraints of western sport models and common periodization schemes.

In the book, The Charlie Francis Training System, Francis discussed how optimal CNS functioning might look in a high-performance athlete. He suggested, “optimal transmission of nervous signals” and “motor pathways, characteristic of optimal technique and efficient routing of motor signals must be in place.” CNS fatigue is reached when the “by-products of high intensity exercise build up to a point where the CNS impulses (necessary to contract the muscle fibers) are handicapped.”

According to Francis, this is caused by:

• High-intensity work occurring too frequently in a training cycle
• Too much high-intensity volume in a single training session
• Introducing high-intensity training too rapidly into a training program when “residual fatigue still exists.”

Francis offered examples of high-intensity, CNS-taxing work:

• Sprints at maximum speed or 100% intensity from 30-120 meters
• Heavy weights allowing only a few repetitions (2-5)
• Explosive jumping and bounding (plyometrics)

Whenever athletes focus on maximum speed or explosiveness, they tax their CNS. “Low-intensity workouts (65-80% 1RM) leave the CNS relatively intact,” Francis explained. Recovery from CNS work requires at least 48 hours before a similar dose. During this period, the athlete should undergo recovery strategies to restore homeostasis.

“At the highest levels of sport there is a quantum increase in CNS output for every increment of improvement. A 95% effort might require 48 hours of recovery, whereas a PR (100% effort) might require 10 days of recovery,” Frances stated.

It appears there is a margin of recovery that should not be taken lightly when we differentiate between 95% and 100% of max speed or power. Perhaps, then, it’s important to highlight the importance of rest and recovery, proper spacing of training sessions, and load monitoring. Perhaps understanding the following two questions will allow us to improve our practice as coaches:

• How is CNS fatigue created?
• What are the possible mechanisms that underpin this phenomenon?

A deeper understanding of the operations of the CNS has grown over the years, linking biological rationale to phenomena we observe as coaches or sensations we might experience as athletes. However, much of the work on CNS fatigue and its role during exercise is done during prolonged exercise and in clinical exercise physiology and medicine. In the physical preparation of the speed-power athlete, perhaps we are following rules of a game we do not yet fully understand.

When training speed-power athletes, perhaps we’re following rules we don’t yet fully understand. Share on X

Most investigations suggesting the CNS plays a role in fatigue are restricted by the lack of “plausible biological mechanisms” and are “relegated to a role of a black box phenomena” which are hard to defend.³

Let’s Define Fatigue

Fatigue experienced during exercise is defined as the “inability to maintain a given exercise intensity.”² It includes an acute impairment of exercise performance that leads to an increase in perceived effort and an eventual inability to produce high quality and high magnitudes of muscular power.³ Fatigue can vary with the nature of the activity (intensity and duration), the athlete’s training status, and the present environmental conditions.²

The causes of acute fatigue are interrelated and complex. Fatigue can be elicited by depleted energy stores in muscle or by accumulating metabolites within the muscle cell. Fatigue can also result from a failure of neural transmission outside the muscle cell within the nervous system,⁶ which is the focus of this article.

Neural or nerve transmission is the process whereby signaling molecules (neurotransmitters) are released by a neuron (the presynaptic neuron), and bind to, and activate the receptors of, another neuron.⁶

It’s important to mention that fatigue also has roots in psychology. For example, the limits of physical stress may be consciously or subconsciously limited by the athlete’s pain and work tolerance.⁶ Motivation and perception ³ and their effects on performance have been documented for years.¹

It’s difficult to find a specific definition of CNS fatigue. Davis and Bailey explained it as the “failure to maintain the required or expected force or power output associated with specific alterations in CNS function that cannot reasonably be explained by dysfunction in the muscle itself.” Somehow the ability to maintain CNS drive to the working muscle(s) is compromised.

In other words, if it takes more stimulation (CNS input) to produce a desirable level of muscle contraction (output), then the CNS is likely fatigued. This indicates that the muscle itself is less responsive to the degree of input it’s receiving from the CNS.

Evidence for a specific role of CNS fatigue is limited due to human physiology’s constant flux. Share on X

Acute CNS fatigue, although accepted as real and valid, warrants a deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved. Evidence for a specific role of CNS fatigue, however, is limited by the lack of objective measures due to human physiology’s constant state of flux. Understanding the neurophysiological mechanisms behind CNS fatigue may lead to a better understanding of human adaptation to physical stress.

There also may be factors outside of the muscle cell that cause fatigue.⁶ Fatigue may be the product of an inability to activate muscle fibers, which is a CNS function.

A Neurophysiological Mechanism to Explain CNS Fatigue

Fatigue can be classified into electrophysiological and biochemical considerations. Electrophysiological involves steps in the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or the fiber leading up to the binding stage of actin and myosin. In this article, I focus on the electrophysiological considerations on the CNS.

Davis and Bailey discussed the following CNS electrophysiological mechanisms that result in a reduction in CNS drive to the motor neuron:

• A reduction in the corticospinal (descending impulses) reaching the motor neurons—a reduction decreases the conduction of signals and impulses from the brain to the spinal cord and muscle.
• An inhibition of motor neuron excitability by neurally mediated afferent feedback from the muscle—inhibition hinders a motor neuron’s ability to be turned on (excited) because the brain is mediating the feedback retrieved from the sensory neuron at the muscle back to the CNS.

These considerations may involve a reflex where mechanoreceptors or free nerve endings give the CNS feedback based on the level of muscle metabolites present from the work the athlete is doing.³ Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors that respond to mechanical pressure or distortion. Free nerve endings are unspecialized, afferent nerve fiber endings of a sensory neuron; afferent meaning bringing information from the body’s periphery toward the brain—they detect pain.

The CNS makes adjustments, regulating the maximal force that can be produced by the fatiguing muscles so a safe and economical pattern of muscle activation can occur. This is known as the sensory feedback hypothesis.³

There is good evidence that the perception of effort is strongly influenced by the magnitude of the corollary discharge (copy of a motor command) from the motor cortex that delivers information to the primary somatosensory cortex.³

For example, when the force that a muscle can exert is decreased via experimentation (by fatigue or with curarization), the perceived effort for the task increases in association with the more substantial motor command that a person must generate to achieve the target force.
“Whether or not these higher centers are modified by neural input from other brain centers, afferent feedback from the working muscle and/or changes in neurotransmitter metabolism subsequent to the passage of blood-borne substances across the blood-brain barrier is not well studied.”³

The Role of Neurotransmitters in CNS Fatigue

The job of a neurotransmitter is to transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron to another target neuron—the muscle cell. It also carries messages between cells in the brain and spinal cord.

Small sacs called vesicles store neurotransmitters, and each vesicle holds a single type of neurotransmitter. The vesicles travel like tiny little rafts to the end of the neuron, where they dock and wait to be released (presynaptic cleft). When it’s time for the neuron to release neurotransmitters, the vesicles dump their contents into the synapse gap (the space between cells) where they travel to specialized receptor sites.

In exercise and CNS fatigue, the key neurotransmitters are serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine.³

Serotonin

Serotonin is linked to perceptions of effort, lethargy, and CNS fatigue during prolonged exercise. It’s hypothesized that, during prolonged exercise, brain serotonin levels increase in response to increased blood-borne tryptophan (TRP) delivered to the brain. TRP is a precursor to serotonin.³ Because of the physiological conditions created during prolonged exercise, TRP circulates loosely bound to albumin, and the free TRP moves across the blood-brain barrier.³

Serotonin synthesis increases during prolonged exercise, which is associated with lethargy and loss of motor drive.³ When brain serotonin activity or TRP availability to the brain increases, fatigue from prolonged exercise occurs more quickly.

Dopamine

Brain dopamine synthesis also appears to be a key factor in CNS fatigue. It seems to be necessary for movement, and increases in brain dopaminergic activity may increase endurance performance. As noted by Davis and Bailey, dopamine may delay fatigue by inhibiting brain serotonin synthesis and by directly activating motor pathways. Dopamine increases neural drive as well as motivation.⁴

With ideal dopamine levels, athletes may want to train more and be hungry to compete. Share on X

With ideal dopamine levels, athletes may want “it” more. They may want to train more and be hungry to compete.⁴ Dopamine also seems to increase vasodilation and the sweat response. The general theory is: more body heat, better nerve impulse transmission.⁴ Consequently, CNS drive is enhanced and fast twitch fibers are reached due to their superficial nature.

Further Study for Speed and Power Athletes

The elusive question, though, is whether these hypotheses can be applied to all training stimuli and all populations.

• Fatigue of voluntary muscular effort is a challenging construct. It appears CNS fatigue is evidenced by a decrease in central drive likely involving accumulation and depletion of neurotransmitters in CNS pathways located upstream of corticospinal neurons.³
• As we move forward in understanding adaptation to physical stress, more efforts are needed to determine precise mechanisms of CNS fatigue that make biological sense of the perceptions athletes sense during training and the observations coaches make.
• Most of the work done so far has been in clinical settings (chronic fatigue syndrome) and using prolonged endurance performance models with athletes. Yet CNS fatigue is a term used in many other settings, such as the weight room and during sport-specific speed and power sessions. It’s also suggested that we can apply these mechanistic hypotheses to healthier, more adapted populations.

Perhaps the CNS simply lessens exercise intensity to more tolerable levels to protect all humans. Share on X

We are, in essence, examining the same biological markers and measuring CNS drive regardless of the population studied and the stimulus and stress delivered. Perhaps we just have different standards or normative data for the elite athlete versus those with effort syndromes, like chronic fatigue syndrome. Perhaps the CNS simply lessens exercise (stress) intensity to more tolerable levels to protect all humans.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Asmussen, E., “Muscle Fatigue,” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 11(4) (1979): 313-321.
2. Brooks, George, Thomas Fahey, and Kenneth Baldwin, Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications, 4th Edtition (McGraw-Hill Education, 2004).
3. Davis, Mark, and Stephen Bailey, “Possible Mechanisms of Central Nervous System Fatigue During Exercise,” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 29(1) (1997): 45-57.
4. Davidson, Pat, interview by Derek M. Hansen, “Performance Concept Chat Episode 10: Exploring CNS Fatigue,” StrengthPowerSpeed,podcast audio, March 25, 2017, http://www.strengthpowerspeed.com/articles/.
5. Francis, Charlie, The Charlie Francis Training System (Amazon Digital Services, LLC, 1982).
6. Kenney, W. Larry, Jack H. Wilmore, and David L. Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise 6th Edition, (Human Kinetics, 2006).

 

In the strength and conditioning field, on top of lifting, jumping, and sprinting, there are myriad ways to influence performance outcomes. Many of these extras are technology-based, such as tracking velocity, forces, sleep, and recovery. One of these “extras” that I really like, but hear very little about, is electrical myostimulation, or EMS.

Most people know what EMS is, but I don’t see a lot of EMS use in the athletic community and, more specifically, in performance enhancement. I have seen it become more popular of late in high performance or CrossFit, but mainly from a recovery standpoint. I still don’t hear a lot of people talking about it from a performance/stimulus perspective. This is an area that I think holds a lot of potential.

I’ve been interested in EMS for a long time, after reading work from the Soviets, Paavo K. Komi, and coaches like Charlie Francis. It’s not like the research isn’t there—people have published it—but for several reasons, EMS is somewhat impractical in the field. If other coaches are like me, they find it difficult to isolate a single athlete in the training environment for the purpose of EMS. Since traditional machines have always been a bit cumbersome, and you can only use them on one athlete at a time, I think many coaches have written EMS off on an operational level, as opposed to a theoretical level. That being said, I think it can be a very smart investment for an elite athlete whose career tends to span over a decade when it’s all said and done. Although this article is focused on performance, most machines are quite robust and offer a multitude of benefits, for performance, recovery, and rehab.

Unanswered Questions

If you’re one of those coaches who has been curious about EMS but never made the jump, I’ll highlight some of my own experiences and the questions I had about it. My personal interest in EMS admittedly came as a spinoff from my early interest in the Central Nervous System (CNS). When I first began training athletes, I very quickly understood the limitations of the CNS to deliver high-quality output. What I mean by this is that you have a finite amount of “optimal work” that you can get accomplished before the athlete fatigues and loses access to their high threshold motor units. This is the period when they’re most recovered and primed/activated. This leads to one of the questions that frequently crosses my mind.

If my nervous system is such a limiting factor, would training the system with an external stimulus be counterproductive or would it be beneficial?

The data suggests there are many uses for EMS that would drive performance through many mechanisms. According to Komi (in his book, “Strength and Power in Sport”), many studies seem to be contradictory as to the results and mechanisms of EMS. However, in 2012, Filipovic et al. did a systematic review of EMS to try and find a clear-cut response on the effectiveness of EMS.

• This scientific analysis revealed that EMS is effective for developing physical performance. After a stimulation period of 3-6 weeks, significant gains (p < 0.05) were shown in maximal strength (isometric Fmax +58.8%; dynamic Fmax +79.5%), speed strength (eccentric isokinetic Mmax +37.1%; concentric isokinetic Mmax + 41.3%; rate of force development + 74%; force impulse + 29%; vmax + 19%), and power (+67].
• As a result, the analysis reveals a significant relationship (p < 0.05) between a stimulation intensity of ≥50% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC; 63.2 ± 19.8%) and significant strength gains.

Those results seem to indicate that there is a significant benefit to the use of EMS for performance enhancement—most notably, increases in maximal strength, power, and rate of force development. The fact that performance was enhanced is clear, the mechanism by which it enhanced is not so clear. This drew me to consider whether the EMS caused adaptations by itself or whether it merely facilitated more efficient work. My main question is:

Would pre-activating motor units with electrical impulses make them more excitable from an internal stimulus? Or does the EMS cause all the adaptations on its own?

The truth is, I don’t necessarily have the data to answer these questions. You might be better asking Carl Valle, as he’s written on EMS previously (see “The Top 6 EMS Protocols for Sports Performance”). However, I can say that I’ve personally experimented with EMS and have seen positive results.

Now, before I give you my personal experiences, let me tell you that this was a very casual experiment and would hardly pass the scientific validity test. My original purpose was mainly for fun as I had just gotten my hands on a high-quality unit and was curious as to the potential outcomes. I also used this on myself, as a coach and not one of my athletes. The reason I’m sharing this is just to give some feedback to people who are curious about it but never tried it.

Operating the EMS Machine

The first thing I learned is that EMS, at least for me, is progressive. I only used EMS on my legs and I used it mainly on “explosive strength,” in conjunction with my training. This utilizes incredibly strong contractions compared to a massage or recovery setting. The first few times I used it, the contraction I could handle was limited. As I improved my tolerance to somewhere between “uncomfortable”’ and “painful,” I could handle much stronger contractions, progressively. Thus, the technology probably has limitations depending upon an athlete’s level of pain tolerance.

Also, due to its progressive nature, my guess is that best results accompany prolonged usage. Besides this, operations are fairly straightforward: Make sure you have functional equipment and a comfortable position, since your EMS session could be anywhere from 20-40 minutes long. Then, pick the program you’re looking for and use the provided guide to place the electrodes in the appropriate positions. Depending on your brand of EMS, this could be a booklet, picture, or app. At the end of the day, the modern EMS machines are pretty simple. You don’t need to know the optimal frequency or time, as this has been simplified with pre-designed programs. Just plug the machine in, and pick your program.

My Personal Protocol and Outcomes

I know that many people use EMS systems to improve recovery and pain management, but I figured a piece of technology of this magnitude would be best suited for performance. I did a dedicated squat protocol and supplemented with explosive strength on the EMS (mostly quads, as they’re easiest alone) on training days. I figured there were plenty of ways I could work on recovery, but I wasn’t sure of other ways to send impulses through my system that were equal to or stronger than a maximum voluntary contraction. From a performance standpoint, this intrigued me.

Since I didn’t intend to publish data, I never set any controls and didn’t track my data that thoroughly; I only decided to write about this later. However, after about eight weeks, I was able to PR my back squat. The reason I think the EMS contributed to this is because I am nowhere near PRing on any of my other compound lifts, and my Olympic lifting is mainly attributed to technique improvements. Between my age and my training environment, I would never have thought that I’d actually hit a lifetime PR.

My training and EMS protocol followed three main squat workouts per week (I’m not including my accessory or upper body work here). Each of the three days would start with some Olympic lifting or Olympic lifting derivatives, and then went into the squatting soon after. It was never a significant amount of Olympic lifting volume—it was more of a primer than anything.

• On my first squat day of the week, I worked up to five sets of five.
• On my second squat day of the week, I worked up to five sets of three.
• On my last squat day, I worked up to a few doubles, then three or four singles.

Essentially, I went from volume at the beginning of the week to high load at the end of the week, but used auto regulation to find my numbers. I was fairly aggressive with the numbers I wanted, but I also never forced any and never failed a rep in training.

At night on these days, I doubled up and hit a quad program of EMS on either strength or explosive strength, with about 80-90% adherence over the six to eight weeks. I personally prefer explosive strength. I felt that by repeating on the same day, I could get a greater volume of work in after my nervous system had failed. Not only did I actively progress and overload with my training, but I tried to push with the EMS as well. Not that I recommend it, but I got to the point where I wore a mouthguard to bite down on when contractions became intense. All in the name of science.

I’m telling you all this to explain that I last managed to hit a 400lb back squat before my daughter was born, derailing my training once again. While it’s been almost 10 years since my football career, the EMS and training combination allowed me to hit numbers I thought were no longer within my grasp, due to my limited time and focus on training. I highly encourage you, if you have the right situation, to try experimenting with it yourself.

Although the EMS didn’t help with soreness, and I battled days of aching and tightness, I rarely had trouble increasing load by the time my body was sufficiently warmed up for the day. Between the combination of my own results and positive research, I definitely plan to continue experimenting with EMS on myself and a few of my athletes.

The Reasoning Behind My Conclusions

I’m sure there are other educators and maybe even coaches who can give better explanations of the mechanisms and outcomes involved, but I have my own guesses as to why EMS may be beneficial. I personally tend to think performance is driven more from the abilities of the nervous system than the abilities of the tissues involved, but I think EMS might possibly reconcile the two. I know I’ve personally seen compensations occurring, both in myself and in my athletes, and the inability to voluntarily activate specific muscle groups in a uniform way, during certain movements.

A clear example would be an athlete who is relatively strong, but if you asked him to do unilateral movements, he may lack the ability to activate or at least feel a strong contraction on one side vs. the other, either due to injuries or when seemingly “healthy,” if there is such a thing. For instance, asking an athlete with quad tendinopathy to do a single leg hip thrust—my guess is they won’t get much action out of the hip joint. I personally had issues with this even while operating at a high level (relative to my own maximal abilities). My belief isn’t clear, but if we’re inefficient at uniformly activating motor units and muscle fibers in training, EMS can stimulate an equal number of motor units on each limb relative to the amount of impulse being subjected to the area. Where I think this applies is probably (and remember, this is my opinion) through potentiation rather than tissue adaptation.

It is possible that the impulses can stress the local system enough to form their own adaptations, but I personally am not convinced that would be the case. My assumption, and take it for what it’s worth, is that intense uniform impulses probably make it more efficient at voluntarily activating those fibers in my own movements later on in my next training session. I personally only tested EMS in conjunction with training, not as a replacement for it, so it’s hard to say whether the EMS itself caused its own training adaptations.

As much as I feel like my training is generally guided by sound research, the contradictions and confusion with EMS make me want to continue to experiment on my own, as well. I feel that the downside has so far been minimal (or none), but the upside could be significant. I’ve already tested EMS with maximal strength and will continue to test it in more explosive ways, either with a jump test or sprint test.

If you’ve had success, or otherwise, with EMS, please share your stories and get some information out there! I’d love to hear about your experiences and keep pushing the boundaries of performance.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

Hi, I’m Ben Prentiss and welcome to PHP. I’ve just moved into this new facility after 17 years, 8,000 square feet of the world’s latest and greatest equipment. The latest and greatest piece that I’ve had for a year now, is the 1080 Quantum.

I’d say it’s an all encompassing, robotic game changer. That’s basically what I say because when people look at it they think it’s a Smith machine or it’s just a pulley, ’cause you really can’t tell when you look at it what it’s doing. But for me it really has been worth the price in terms of the amount we’ve used it and helped us do things that you cannot do. You can’t do. I mean that’s the number one thing is that there’s nothing out there that can do what the Quantum can do and that’s really it. I mean to overload, to use vibration, to use isokinetic, to boost eccentric, to go full speed, to be able to have the ability to throw or jump, there’s nothing there.

So it really gives the strength coach all of the tools in his toolbox, in one shot. Which trainers always say, “It’s great to have tools in your toolbox.” Well here’s one piece of equipment that basically gives you every variable possible.

One of the things that I like it for, that it’s not famous for is using in our structural phase, where we’re just using small muscles and people wouldn’t think of it as a huge selling point. But actually, when you ask any of my athletes, one of the things they hate the most, which means it’s one of the most effective is doing abductor/adductor, dorsiflexion, anterior tibialis, and rotator cuff, and trap three work. Is unbelievable for the effect. That we can use a two to one eccentric to concentric ratio and move at different speeds has really been effective for us.

Not only is the data important to show but the aspect of having each player sort of compete against each other and look at how much force they can produce, how much newtons they can produce, or how fast they can move the bar. All three of those things are hugely important in the game but also it’s important for the athletes to get better in season, which is a very difficult or typically a maintaining thing. Well now we’ve actually seen athletes through isokinetic get stronger in season.

So when I go back to dynamics with bands or dynamic squat with bands, or those kind of lifts. We’ve actually seen them produce more force after a phase in the 1080. So with so much success and I’ve had the 1080 for almost two years, two off seasons.

I’ve decided to get the 1080 Sprint. So it basically gives me the whole kitchen. I’m now able to do vertical and horizontal production and for me the most valuable tool would be to bring the 1080 Sprint on the ice. So I’ll be looking forward to giving a lot of info on that this coming off season

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF