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The reality in the world of high performance strength & conditioning is that athletes will face interruptions in their training at some point or another. In some cases, injuries occur. Some are very minor and training can resume as planned with some modifications. Other times, medical interventions are necessary followed by complete rest of varied durations.

It is also worth mentioning that athletes also voice their worries over losing their physiological adaptations when coaches employ periods of active rest or tapers. For both the strength & conditioning coach and the athlete, it is important to have a general understanding of what happens to an athlete’s ‘physiology’ during a short-term period of detraining. It is important to understand the potential effects and understand the mechanisms of any changes in physiological capacity.

This brief article categorizes ‘Detraining’ as part of the Principle of Reversibility. This principle is broadly defined by stopping or markedly reducing physical training leading to an induction and a partial or complete reversal of adaptations earned from training. As mentioned previously, interruptions in training could include illness, injury, active rest cycles or other reasons.

Detraining is defined as: “the partial or complete loss of training induced anatomical, physiological or performance adaptations as a consequence of training reduction or cessation” (80). Training cessation implies a “temporary discontinuation or complete abandonment of systematic programme of physical conditioning” (80).

A taper, on the other hand is “A progressive non-linear reduction of the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and to optimize (sports) performance” (80).

Timelines Defined

Losses of training-induced adaptations differ depending on the duration of the period of insufficient training stimulus (80). A 4–week block (short-term) is the reference point for this article.

Populations Examined

It is also critical to mention, “Some detraining ‘effects’ are not the same when we compare the elite athlete with several years of training history to the previously sedentary, recently trained person who engages in activity for health-related purposes versus performance purposes.”(Bott and Mujaika, 2016).

This article discusses the process of detraining, during a 4-week period (short-term), as it pertains to each system of the body. Within each system, the article attempts to compare the “endurance-trained athlete” to the “recently trained person” – two very different populations.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the endurance-trained athlete is defined not exclusively as an endurance athlete (marathoner, road cyclist etc), but rather an athlete who possesses a relatively high aerobic capacity. However, in the studies reviewed for this article, exact capacity values were not clearly defined.

Systems of the Body

1. The Cardiorespiratory System

Maximal Oxygen Uptake (81)

• Shown to decline with short term (<4 weeks) training cessation in highly trained individuals with large aerobic power scores.
• The % loss is somewhere between 4 and 14%.
• Essentially, some studies are showing the higher trained, the bigger the decline.
• Conversely, that of the recently trained has been shown to decline to a much lesser extent (3-6%).

Blood Volume (81)

• Total blood volume as well as plasma volume have been shown to decline by 5-12% in endurance-trained athletes. This essentially limits End-Diastolic Volume (the phase where the heart fills up with blood – large amounts are good) and consequently the End-systolic volume (the amount of blood left in the heart after it contracts to push the blood out – small amounts are good)
• Plasma volume can decline in the first 2 days of inactivity so this has implications for tapering.
• In recently trained individuals there is also reduce blood volume (red cell mass and plasma) so this effect is not limited to those more trained.

Heart Rate (81)

• As a result of the decrease in plasma volume, there is a relatively acute increase at submaximal and maximal workloads (5-10%). This is important if a coach is using heart rate as a means of monitoring intensity.
• However, this effect is reversed when plasma volume is expanded.
• Stabilizes after 2-3 weeks without training
• Resting heart rate unchanged in endurance-trained individuals
• In recently trained individuals: Resting Heart Rate and Maximum Heart Rate can revert quickly to pre-exercise levels but Submaximum HR is not affected.

Stroke Volume (81)

• Since blood and plasma volume decreases, stroke volume follows suit and is reduced.
• Reduction in maximal aerobic capacity shown by endurance-trained athletes.
• After 12 – 21 days of cessation, a reduction of 10-17% has been reported along with a corresponding 12% reduction in Left ventricular end-diastolic dimension.
• No observations have been summarized on recently trained persons.

Cardiac Output (81)

• The increased Heart Rate values resulting from detraining does not counterbalance the decrease in stroke volume in endurance-trained athletes.
• Thus, cardiac output is reduced substantially (8%) with 21 days without training in endurance-trained athletes.

Cardiac Dimensions and Blood Pressure (81)

• Some researchers observed no change in such a short time.
• Some observed a 25% decrease in Left Ventricular wall thickness and a 19.5% reduction in LV mass after only 3 weeks in endurance-trained athletes.
• A reduction in LV mass and a higher total peripheral resistance could lead to increases in mean arterial pressure during exercise when an individual becomes detrained.
• In recently trained individuals who trained for 8 weeks lost all positive effects on systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). They were completely reversed.

Ventilatory Function (82)

• A decline in maximum ventilatory volume is observed in highly trained individuals
• This often declines parallel to VO2 max (maximal oxygen consumption)
• There is no commentary on recently trained individuals on this characteristic

Endurance Performance (82)

• A loss in the characteristics of cardiorespiratory fitness lead to performance impairments in endurance-trained individuals
• Slower times to complete distances
• Shorter exercise times to exhaustion are performance indicators
• In recently trained individuals (6-12 weeks of training), 2 weeks of training cessation did not sufficiently reduce time to exhaustion.

2. The Metabolic System

Substrate Availability and Utilization (82)

• In endurance-trained athletes, the increase in the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) at both submaximal and maximal exercise intensities results in a higher reliance on carbohydrate metabolism
• Insulin sensitivity also decreases which is linked to decreased lipid mobilization during exercise
• There is an observable reduction in GLUT-4 transporter protein content – Skeletal muscle stores glucose as glycogen and oxidizes it to produce energy. The main glucose transporter protein that mediates this uptake is GLUT4, which plays a key role in regulating whole body glucose homeostasis.
• Also, a decrease in muscle protein lipoprotein lipase activity. Lipoprotein lipase breaks down fat in the form of triglycerides, which are carried from various organs to the blood by molecules called lipoproteins. This leads to a decrease in HDL cholesterol (the good guys) and increase in LDL cholesterol (the bad guys)
• With respect to individuals recently trained, all values of insulin, RER and GLUT-4 go back to initial levels (pre-training levels).

Blood Lactate Kinetics (82)

• Endurance-trained athletes have been shown to respond to a standardized submaximal swim with higher blood lactate levels after only a few days of training cessation.
• This is accompanied by a lowered Bicarbonate level
• LT occurs at a lower % of VO2 max
• *Muscle’s oxidative capacity may fall as much as 50% in one week.
• In recently-trained individuals, lactate levels did not change with cessation of exercise, even after 6 weeks of training. It is presumable that it takes several months, if not years to significantly improve lactate threshold in previously untrained individuals.

Muscle Glycogen Stores (83)

• Negatively affected by training cessation in as little as one week due to rapid decline in glucose to glycogen conversion and rapid decrease in glycogen synthase activity.
• No specifics on particular populations.

3. The Muscular System

Muscle Capillarization (83)

• Declines or doesn’t change in such a short amount of time
• In highly trained athletes, it still remains 50% higher versus sedentary controls
• With recently trained individuals, levels still remain higher than pre-training values after 4 weeks of inactivity
• This indicates the robustness of this adaptation.

Arterial-Venous Oxygen Difference (83)

• Data available is sparse
• Indicates no change in 21 days, lending support that the decline in VO2 max is likely due to central factors: decreased stroke volume.

Myoglobin Level (83)

• In both trained and recently trained individuals, cessation did not affect myoglobin levels in such a short period of detraining.

Enzymatic Activities (84)

• Citrate synthase (the enzyme in the first reaction of the Kreb’s cycle in aerobic metabolism) activity decreases between 25 and 45 % with short term training cessation in trained athletes.
• Decreased muscle oxidative capacity is reflected by significant (12-27%) reductions in enzymes that facilitate ATP production in aerobic pathways (beta-hydroxyacyl CoA-dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase)
• Lipoprotein lipase activity in muscle tissue decreases, favoring storage of adipose tissue
• Glycolytic enzymes decreased only slightly with the exception of glycogen synthase which decreased 42% after only 5 days
• All of the above information pertains to trained athletes
• For those recently trained, mitochondrial enzyme activities have been shown to decline to pre-training levels.

Muscle Fiber Characteristics (84)

• Human skeletal muscle is highly plastic tissue and improvements in measurement techniques have allowed the human muscle to be studied in a more functional context (Harridge, 2007).
• It is the properties of muscle which are altered by changes in physical activity (Harridge, 2007).
• Harridge’s review discusses, specifically, the contractile machinery of the muscle and how it is sensitive to mechanical loading. Should those loads be removed for a period of time due to injury, specific fiber types will atrophy.
• Disuse, due to detraining, has the effect of causing slow to fast transformation of muscle fiber type expression. This may lead coaches to blindly conclude this as being an ideal adaptation for speed and power.
• What one must keep in mind is the atrophy that comes with disuse negates any benefits of slow-to-fast transition in terms of fiber function.
• Mean fiber cross-sectional area in Type 2 fibers, can decrease in 2 weeks
• Percentage distribution of fiber types were unaltered in recently trained individuals during 4 weeks of inactivity.

*The mechanisms of fiber transitions are beyond the scope of this article.

Strength Performance (84)

• Strength-trained athletes showed slight, but non-significant reductions in Bench Press, Squat and Vertica Jump after 2 weeks without training
• However, it is important to note that swimmers were not able to demonstrate same force to the water (power) after 4 weeks of inactivity.
• In recently trained individuals, after 4 weeks of inactivity, strength was still higher than pre-training values.

4. The Endocrine System (84)

• Decline in insulin sensitivity
• Unaltered catecholamine levels at rest and after submaximal exercise
• Glucagon, cortisol and Growth Hormone did not change with 5 days of inactivity in endurance athletes
• Strength trained athletes show positive anabolic hormone changes after 14 days of inactivity, with:
• Increased GH levels
• Increased Testosterone levels and T:C Ratio
• Decreased Cortisol levels

Short-term Detraining Re-Cap

• “The partial or complete loss of a training-induced adaptation in response to an insufficient training stimulus” (85).
• Short term is defined as less than 4 weeks of inactivity.
• Losses depend on the training status of the subject.

Conclusions and Implications for Tapering

• Rapid decline in VO2 max with highly trained athletes.
• Much less in recently trained individuals.
• Due to immediate reduction in blood volumes and reduction in stroke volume
• Thus, endurance performance declines rapidly in trained athletes.
• Higher reliance of CHO as a fuel source
• Decreased muscle lipoprotein lipase activity
• Lactate threshold lower at % of VO2 max
• Muscle glycogen levels rapidly decline
• Significant reduction in oxidative enzyme activities and thus reduced ATP production
• Non-systematic changes in Glycolytic enzyme activities
• Muscle fiber distribution remains unchanged
• Fiber cross sectional area declines (atrophy) in strength and sprint trained athletes.
• Strength can be maintained for up to 4 weeks of inactivity.
• However, sport-specific power of athletes may suffer declines
• Anabolic hormones may increase in strength-trained athletes

Works Cited

• Harridge, Stephen D. R. (2007). Plasticity of human skeletal muscle: gene expression to in vivo function. Experimental Physiology. 92.5 783-797.
• Mujika, I and Padilla, S. (2000). Detraining: Loss of training-induced Physiological and Performance Adaptations. Part 1. Short Term Insufficient Training Stimulus. Sports Medicine. 30 (2). 79-87.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Squash is an exceptionally tough sport where the top players exhibit phenomenal levels of athleticism, speed, power, and agility. I was fortunate to attend the 2016 Men’s Squash World Championships in Cairo, Egypt with players from the Hong Kong Sports Institute. As a strength and conditioning coach, I work with the number one ranked player at the Institute.
The head coach sent me to Egypt to experience the sport’s highest level to gain greater insight and knowledge by observing how the best players behave, prepare, and compete.

Video 1. Mathieu Castagnet dives for the ball and quickly recovers to hit a winning shot. Squash requires remarkable skills and physical abilities.

The sport has produced outstanding, talented athletes over the years including Jansher Khan, Peter Nicol, Nicol David, and the current number one in the world Mohamed El Shorbagy. Squash courts can be set up in spectacular locations for great sporting occasions—in front of the Pyramids of Giza, inside Grand Central station, and overlooking the Bund in Shanghai.

Squash is a Skill Game that Requires a High Fitness Level

At its core, squash is ultimately a skill game. If you don’t have technical and tactical skills, it doesn’t matter how fit you are. You can’t compete at the higher echelons of the game. This isn’t a groundbreaking concept and isn’t unique to squash. My job is to enhance the athletic capabilities of the athletes while the specialist sports coach teaches the intricacies of the sport.

A skilled player should never lose to an opponent because they lack physical fitness. Share on X

When watching elite squash players such as “Colombian Cannonball” Miguel Angel Rodriguez you understand just how important physical fitness is to the players. As I said, there comes the point when physical fitness won’t make up for a shortfall in squash skill. On the other side of the coin, a player should never lose to an opponent because they lack physical fitness.

Video 2. Rodriguez enhances his squash skills with excellent physical fitness, reinforcing how crucial strength and conditioning is to squash players.

Fitness, speed, and unbelievable reactions allowed Rodriguez to reach number four in the world, and he still resides in the top ten. Squash skill, technique, and tactics remain our training priorities. But having watched Rodriguez bounce around the court almost as fast as the squash ball reinforced how essential strength and conditioning is in modern squash.

Appropriate Training for Squash Players

It was with great surprise then that I saw some players following incredibly flawed training practices. At the hotel gym, I watched an imposing looking athlete come in for a training session in full power lifter mode. Knee sleeves, belt, weightlifting shoes. He went straight to the smith machine (granted hotel gyms are usually appallingly equipped), racked up 50kg, and grunted and groaned his way through some squats. These were working sets. On another occasion, I saw a young, up and coming potential star hitting some lunges after he exited the tournament. High rep sets of lunges with the 6kg dumbbells.

In squash training, players complete dozens if not hundreds of lunges during a week. The value of performing more high rep lunges under low load is a questionable practice to me and may only invite injury through overuse. We use lunges and single leg exercises in our players’ programs, but we tend to load them heavy to build max strength and related qualities.

I also had the opportunity to talk to a player who used only old school bodybuilder methods and machine weights and had no real experience with free weights. We shared ideas with him, demonstrated some things, and I’m sure this will benefit his future squash training and performance.

Current knowledge & training concepts aren’t moving down to all levels of the sport of squash. Share on X

In the world of elite sports performance, we know American Football and Rugby use sports science, strength and conditioning, and modern training practices. My time in Egypt highlighted that squash is still one of many sports where the latest knowledge and training concepts are not finding their way down through all levels of the sport. The benefits of weight training and muscular strength to footballers and rugby players is clear but can still be a hard sell in other sports.

Learning Good Habits to Enhance Performance

I observed many positive things, too, while watching the stars of the game. The preparation, warm-up, and cool-down strategies of players Nick Matthew (former three-time World Champion from England) and Nicol David (the long-serving former female world number one) highlighted that longevity in elite sport is achieved only by consistent and long-term good habits.

On game day, I saw both Matthew and David in the gym going through morning stretching, mobility, and activation routines to ensure they were optimally prepared for evening competition. I suspect it’s this dedication, professionalism, and attention to detail that took them to the very peak of the sport and kept them there for so many years.

Speaking of Matthew, I was fortunate to share a bus ride with him from the hotel to the competition venue and pick his brain about squash, training, and his life in sport. We had interesting conversations about working for the EIS, British Cycling, and Shane Sutton. The most interesting story was his personal account of how his attitudes about training have changed.

Like other athletes I’ve met in squash and several other sports, Matthew has an exceptional attitude toward training. His work rate and commitment to athletic development are exemplary. So much so that he was perhaps guilty of over training at times during his career. Matthew openly admitted that he would stress out if he couldn’t train hard in the lead up to, and the day before, a competition. Between game days, he always wanted to be on the court sharpening his skills (at some tournaments, the players get days off between matches).

Unfortunately he was struck down with a knee injury going into the Commonwealth Games which prevented him from training as he normally would before the competition. Even during the week of competition, he didn’t train normally due to his knee injury and travel logistics. Matthew went on to win the Gold medal, and he realized training wasn’t everything. As Dan Pfaff would say, “training is overrated.” It took Matthew until his early 30’s and a knee injury to learn this fact.

Experienced senior athletes, especially, don’t need to train hard every day before and between competitions. Playing squash almost daily every week for many years, athletes won’t lose their touch because they don’t play the day before, or the day in between, matches.

Preparing for Major Competitions

When it comes to a major competition, athletes do all the hard work during the months and years before the competition. Once players arrive at the competition venue, they’re not going to develop new athletic abilities or greatly enhance their competition performance. Training at this late stage will likely mess up all the months and years of hard work. The analogy of “polishing the car” during the final weeks or days before the major championships is the best approach to optimize performance. You won’t add any horsepower at this late stage; you’ll only put miles on the clock that might lead to the breakdown of a vital part.

The flip side is that preparation is very individual. Athletes have their crutches. Things they need to feel, do, or experience to believe they’re fully prepared for optimal performance. The coach’s job is to mentally prepare athletes to perform their best rather than prepare them physically.

On match day, some athletes want to have a session with their coach, some want to hit by themselves. Some like to talk tactics with the coach and some like to have their space, to avoid distractions and other people, to be alone with their music and headphones. I witnessed the challenge Hong Kong coach Faheem Khan faced managing his players’ individual personalities and preferences at the World Championships.

A coach must be adaptable and empathetic to work with the different characters and needs among their athletes. Although we understand that athletes don’t need to put in any work this close to the competition, if the athlete is accustomed to and wants to put in sweat and effort on the court, we need to work with their preferences and idiosyncrasies.

The World Championships went quite well for our guys. While I only work with one of them, I was the strength and conditioning professional from the Institute on this trip, and I helped look after all our guys in the competition. Two players in the main draw progressed to the last 16 and one more to the round of 32. They all lost to a former World Champion, the then reigning World Champion, or the player who went on to become World Champion. They gave a good account of themselves.

As to the importance of professionalism, preparation, and good habits, I was pleased to see the evidence of our athletes’ education and their dedication to their development. Even after tough losses and match finishes late in the night, it was pleasing to see our athletes leading themselves through their cool-down and recovery protocols.

The squash season is long, busy, and unforgiving. The World Championships may have ended for our guys, but the next World Series event was to begin only a couple of weeks later—the next level of competition below the World Championships that’s somewhat equivalent to the Diamond League.

Plans A, B, C, and D

When the tournament was over for our players, we still had the odd day at the end of the week in Cairo. As ever, when training away from home, you never have access to the equipment and facilities you’re used to or need. Everyone wants to undertake the most effective form of training but, for a myriad of reasons, it’s not always possible.

Coaches must be flexible, adaptable, and creative. In a hotel gym with only a handful of machines and dumbbells or a competition venue with minimal equipment and facilities for recovery and cool down, you have to make do with what is there. You have a plan A, but you also put together a plan B, C, and D if you can.

Whenever I travel with athletes, I scout out the venue, the hotel, and the local area looking for opportunities. At the China Open, the hotel facilities were appalling with unsuitable treadmills and only a bench. By exploring the local area and discussions with a local gym owner, I was able to secure access to facilities nearby.

I saw these quotes on social media recently, and they couldn’t be more appropriate to this idea:

• “Having a plan is important—having a plan B maybe even more so!” – Dustin Imdieke, ALTIS
• “Plan B isn’t making it up on the spot—it’s called “plan” B—so let’s plan for it!” – Stuart McMillan, ALTIS

Take Away Points

1. Squash requires exceptional levels of athleticism. In a skill based sport, physical fitness won’t take you to the top, but it’s criminal to fall short of your technical and tactical potential because your physical abilities are underdeveloped.
2. Squash, like many sports, has a long way to go regarding education (throughout all levels of the game) about how optimal athletic development should look.
3. “Don’t try to replicate the game in training, distort it” – Vern Gambetta
4. Professionalism, dedication, and doing the little things well are vital to sporting success and the longevity of that success.
5. Nick Matthew’s experience supports Dan Pfaff’s assertion that “training is overrated.” Some athletes take a long time or a key incident to learn the essential or basic messages. Young athletes should listen to, and benefit from, the experiences and mistakes of their predecessors.
6. The analogy of “polish the car” is apt for major championships. You can’t make an athlete’s tournament with training at this late stage, but you can break it.
7. Work with the individual and their personality. During a championship, the competition’s psychological component dominates, and you must give the athlete what they need to feel strong and confident going into the competition.
8. Education pays off when athletes are given messages repeatedly and experience the benefits of these lessons. Every interaction with an athlete is an opportunity to educate.
9. Have a plan. But be flexible and adaptable. Have backup plans. Once on site, scouting and exploration can help inform, strengthen, and enhance any backup plans.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Overload Stress

As fitness professionals and coaches, we thrive on the fact that it’s our individualized and specific overload periodization that gets our clients/athletes to their goals. We put all the science into developing their program, and they implement it with full reliance on what we have on paper.

Long-distance endurance events require long-term training plans to build up the cycles/mileage properly without wearing down the body. There has long been debate over whether it is more beneficial to train more miles per week at lower intensity or fewer miles per week at a higher intensity. The consensus is to do what works best for your athlete. Some are anatomically and physiologically less gifted than others in their ability to withstand the impact of high-mileage or high-intensity work before injury sets in.

Every athlete has an overload ceiling that continually fluctuates based on the current cycle of training. For example, during base building or recovery cycles, the body can only handle minimal amounts of stress before experiencing overtraining symptoms. In later (stronger) phases, such as strength-endurance, the body typically endures great stress for a period of up to four weeks before needing a microcycle of recovery.

Daniels’ Running Formula lists eight principles of training, which include: stress reaction, specificity, overstress, training response, personal limits, diminishing return, accelerating setbacks, and maintenance. They are all equally important to consider when developing a training program. However, from personal and professional experience, the one that truly hits home is overstress.

Prioritizing Deload Weeks

For an athlete to regularly perform quality training sessions or to peak for competition, the progression of training stimuli must incorporate an appropriate amount of de-stressing in order to reap the benefits of the applied stress. Instead of trying to force the body to adapt by loading, then overloading, and then loading on top of the overload, allow the body to repair itself on a physiological level. This will actually speed performance gains and minimize the risk of injury. We can call it: “The less is more approach.”

Daniels mentions the fact that forcing an athlete to do a workout in less than ideal conditions, or that the body is not feeling well-equipped to handle, can lead to long-term physical and psychological damage. If training can be thought of as an internal stress on the system, consideration of the external stresses on the athlete needs to be a similar priority. These external stresses can include emotional stress, financial stress, school or work stress, or even social stress from friends and family. Even with the best training progression, if these factors are ignored, an athlete can suffer from overtraining symptoms and wind up sidelined.

Coaches should be concerned with both the internal stresses on an athlete, and the external ones. Share on X

Without consideration of an athlete’s individual circumstances, levels of stress, and reactions to training, the application of a cookie-cutter training plan can have disastrous effects. Each athlete has unique strengths and weaknesses that can be targeted with appropriate programming. Every member of a team performing the same workout can have a multitude of effects, depending on the person and the variables that contribute to a training outcome.

According to Zaryski & Smith (2005), intensity is the most critical factor in overload training; however, it must be balanced effectively with frequency and duration. Unfortunately, there is not a neat formula to calculate the ideal frequency/intensity/duration combination for a given athlete. There is a correlation to the level of experience and the training load/frequency/intensity that can be tolerated, but, again, this is not linear or guaranteed. This concept is known as structural tolerance and can be greatly improved over time, within limits.

Overload is defined as the concept of progressively building the load of physiological work so that the body overcompensates and adapts after a recovery period. The length of an athlete’s season—typically described in macrocycles of 12-14 weeks—will also determine how the program is structured. The nutritional intake and hydration level of these types of endurance athletes are critical to recovery and the ability to withstand subsequent overload stimuli (Zaryski & Smith, 2005). If an athlete is struggling to handle a particular workload that was previously handled without incident, it may be time to check whether either nutritional deficiency or dehydration is the culprit.

The Art of the Taper

Just as there is the need for manipulation in the training variables to stimulate adaptation, there is a need for the same type of manipulation when reversing the trend leading up to a competitive event. In researching more about the benefits of tapering for performance, I found an article that revealed the benefits of a nonlinear taper over the traditional step-down and linear tapers for peak performance. Mujika & Padilla (2003) state that a non-linear taper maintains training intensity by gradually reducing training volume (60-90%) and training frequency (no more than 20%); improving performance by about 3%.

The linear taper drops all variables gradually and proportionally, while the step-down taper drops all variables immediately at the beginning of the taper and maintains low levels of training up until performance. Although maximum recovery may occur with these latter two methods, maximum performance suffers. The maintenance of training intensity and relative frequency is necessary to avoid detraining, but the benefits of performance are not achieved without a reduction in other variables.

McNeely and Sandler (2007) state that the research on tapering is often conflicting, considering the difficulty in replicating the psychological stress that occurs leading up to a peak performance event. Many physiological improvements develop during a taper period, including VO2 max (with a taper of less than 14 days), hemoglobin (+14%), and hematocrit (+2.6%) increases in the first seven days of a taper, all of which help improve the oxygen-carrying capacity of the body. Sport-specific muscle power and contractility seem to increase with the taper as well, possibly due to changes in neuromuscular efficiency as fatigue slowly dissipates.

The idea is that, with reduced volume of training, strength-power mechanisms of adaptation are allowed to take shape. They are normally inhibited by the competing aerobic development that occurs during high-volume training. The peak of strength and power in muscle contraction is typically considered ideal for racing to peak performance.

The date of target competition will also designate when tapering (reduction of volume) needs to occur. The length of the taper will vary depending on the distance of the race, but it typically lasts from one to four weeks (Hug et al., 2014). A successful tapering phase leads to peak performance on competition day; this can be enhanced by preceding the taper with several weeks of overload training (up to a 50% increase), while maintaining intensity all the way through race day.

The physiological response to overload stress causes a high activation of the cardiac autonomic system, specifically the parasympathetic nervous system for the purpose of restoration and recovery. As the taper progresses and no new overload is introduced, the parasympathetic response decreases and the sympathetic tone returns to a balance. This has been indicated as a marker of improved race-readiness and performance.

Periodization, recovery, and tapering are each truly an artistic entity that requires individualized attention for each unique athlete, based on their ability and circumstances. To achieve long-term success without the hindrance of overuse injuries, the recovery phase should be emphasized as much as the build-up progressions.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

• Daniels, J. T. (2014). Daniels’ Running Formula (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
• Hug, B., Heyer, L., Naef, N., Buchheit, M., Wehrlin, J. P., & Millet, G. P. (2014). “Tapering for marathon and cardiac autonomic function.” International Journal of Sports Medicine, 35: 676-683.
• McNeely, E. & Sandler, D. (2007). “Tapering for endurance athletes.” Strength & Conditioning Journal, 29(5): 18-24.
• Mujiika, I. & Padilla, S. (2003). “Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies.” Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 35(7): 1182-1187.
• Zaryski, C. & Smith, D. J. (2005). “Training principles and issues for ultra-endurance athletes.” Current Sports Medicine Reports, 4: 163-170.

In recent years, the sports supplement industry has swelled. New products on the market claim to be better concentrated to deliver the greatest performance enhancement or post-workout recovery results over any natural food product. In contrast, with the rising tide of obesity in America, fast food has gotten a bad rap for being supremely concentrated with nutrient-scarce filler substances that lead to metabolic disturbances and increase the risk of heart disease later in life.

It seems unlikely that high-level athletes would opt for fast food over supplements to fuel their ever-repairing bodies, especially with the low-quality stigma attached to these dietary options. To assess this speculation, Cramer et al. (2015), tested the efficacy of carbohydrate replenishment in a randomized control trial comparing fast food and sports supplements post-workout. Their hypothesis presumed that common fast food items can provide adequate macronutrient replenishment equal to that of sports supplements.

The results agreed with the hypothesis: The rates of glycogen recovery were similar. No statistically significant difference in performance showed in the subsequent 20-kilometer time trial between groups, either.

The Details of the Study

The study involved 11 recreationally active men split into two groups: One received carbohydrate replenishment via fast food, and the other via sports supplements. Each had matching macronutrient ratios. Both groups were subjected to a 90-minute glycogen-depleting cycle ride, followed by a muscle biopsy of the vastus lateralis and a four-hour recovery period in which post-workout feeding took place at zero and two hours.

After the four-hour recovery period, the subjects took part in a 20km cycle time trial. Subsequent muscle biopsies were taken from each subject for analysis of their glycogen status. There was no statistical difference between the groups on any of the measured parameters, including muscle glycogen recovery, muscle glycogen concentration post-exercise, blood glucose, insulin, and blood lipid levels.

This study was well-designed, but lacked a strong sample size to warrant the best evidentiary support. There were surveys given to each of the participants to check for satiety levels in regards to zero- and two-hour post-workout feedings. The sports supplement group admittedly felt more full after the sports supplement feed at two hours, but otherwise expressed no feelings of discomfort or sickness from consuming either the fast food or the sports supplements.

The study was supported by previous research. Evidence from that showed that immediate glycogen replenishment post-workout can improve recovery by 45%, and a subsequent feed at two hours post-workout further enhances the storage process. The greatest concern would surround the “regulation” of dietary intake in the 24 hours prior to testing. The participants were told to track their daily intake and then repeat that diet the day before the second trial (seven days later), in order to mimic glycogen content going into the test. Undoubtedly, this can result in widely differing muscle glycogen content if the macronutrients were not fixed and standardized for the pre-test protocol. The study lacked standardization in this regard, but overall it was well methodized.

Innumerable research supports the correlation between fast food consumption and dyslipidemia, cardiovascular risk, and the obesity epidemic. However, there has been minimal research conducted on the acute effects of this food intake in healthy and active individuals. This type of study would be dangerous in the hands of the media, which could blow the data widely out of proportion. The population tested consisted of recreationally active men, and thus cannot be globalized to fit sedentary populations, high-level athletes, or even women. A longitudinal study is needed to determine the long-term effects of these dietary choices before fast food is given the green light for healthy, active populations.

This does not mean we shouldn’t challenge the idealized use of sports supplements as opposed to natural food sources, which may achieve the same effect with less artificial processing. Professional athletes will not likely adopt this habit any time soon; especially without valid and reliable evidence that fast food is healthy enough to support performance and training recovery in the elite world, where glycogen processing and efficiency reach an entirely new level.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Reference

Cramer, M. J., Dumke, C. L., Hailes, W. S., Cuddy, J. S. & Ruby, B. C. (2015). “Postexercise glycogen recovery and exercise performance is not significantly different between fast food and sport supplements.” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 25, 448-455.

Editor’s Note: RunScribe Pro are small wearable devices that attach to a runner’s shoes and collect data such as stride pace, contact time, pronation velocity, horizontal braking, impact force, and other metrics. Given the large storage capacity of this wearable technology, RunScribe can store these metrics for every step of an extended workout or run. The RunScribe dashboard is primarily designed to provide feedback to distance runners, but it is possible to extract all the data into a CSV (Comma Separated Values) file for other types of activities and analysis. For example, tech savvy coaches could use RunScribe to collect metrics for sprints, hurdles, jumps, vaults, and other skilled and non-skilled events. The set of instructions below show how to export the data from the RunScribe devices to a CSV file that can be imported into Excel or Google Docs for further analysis. — SF

1. Contact RunScribe technical support and request that your account be upgraded to download CSV Run files.

2. Download the Runscribe app from the Apple app store or Google Play.

3. Follow app instructions to add a RunScribe device and select Left/Right foot and Heel or Laces mounting. If collecting data on multiple athletes with multiple RunScribe devices, rename each Runscribe with the athlete’s name/foot. The RunScribe name will be visible when viewing data online.

4. Take note of the last 4 digits of each scribe’s serial number, athlete name, and foot.

• Serial
• Number
• Name Foot

5. Attach RunScribe devices to the shoes, ensure that they are tightly mounted for data accuracy, and go for a run. The RunScribe devices will automatically start recording when running is detected, and stop after a few minutes of no motion.

6. When finished, open the RunScribe app and click the sync button in the top right corner (internet connection required). Wait for the sync to complete.

7. To view data, go to the RunScribe Dashboard and log in. Runs are automatically named by the date of the run. Click on the date of the run you would like to download.

8. For accurate stride pace and stride length, the run must be calibrated by typing the total distance run (from a GPS watch or measured course) in to the box below.

9. To download data, click on the download symbol (highlighted in red below) on the top right of the page.

As you click on each file to download, you will have the option to choose the file name. The default name is the Run number and scribe serial number (i.e. 46230-F97E6BC1.csv). It may be helpful to change the name from the scribe serial number to the athlete’s name and foot (such as Josh-RightLaces-Sep29.csv).

10. Open the run file in a spreadsheet application such as Microsoft Excel. The data is saved so that each row is a single footstep, and each column is a different metric. The metrics of the downloaded file are in the units given in the table below.

† For calibration, see step 8.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Since its first application to field and team sports in 2006, global positioning system (GPS) technology has been used to detect fatigue in matches, compare intensity profiles according to player position, compare competition skill levels, and identify the most intense periods of play.¹ GPS is most commonly used and studied in the Australian Football League (AFL) but is gradually infiltrating such other sports as rugby, soccer, hockey, and American football.

With GPS data, coaches can design physical conditioning and plan appropriate recovery time following intense work according to the demands of each player’s position. As the technology continues to develop, it will become more useful for court-based sports, will help coaches determine appropriate training loads, improve recovery, and decrease injuries.

Quantifying Game Demands: Football

In contact sports like football, coaches using GPS can read real-time tackle and impact information instead of, or in addition to, time-consuming video analysis.² A study by Wellman et al. (2016)⁶ examined the use of GPS and accelerometry with thirty-three NCAA Division I football players during their twelve regular season games. The researchers wanted to determine and quantify the differences in the demands of player positions during competitive games.

They found that wide receivers and defensive backs executed significantly greater total distance covered, high-intensity running, sprint distance, and intense acceleration and deceleration efforts compared to other offensive and defensive players.

Linebackers and defensive backs essentially covered the same total moderate- and high-intensity distance. Defensive backs, however, displayed significantly more sprint, maximal acceleration, and maximal deceleration efforts than any other defensive position.

Coaches can use this information to design physical conditioning specific to each player’s position and plan appropriate recovery after intense work.

Coaches can use GPS information to design position-specific physical conditioning & recovery time. Share on X

A similar study of AFL athletes found a substantial 11% decline in exertion per minute from a game’s first quarter to the fourth quarter, showing accumulated fatigue late in the game.⁷ During the four-year study, researchers tracked a significant increase in player demands. Mean velocity and intensity increased by 8-14%, possibly because of league rule changes made to increase the game’s overall speed.

Quantifying Game Demands: Soccer

There are few studies on GPS in soccer competitions because the International Federation of Football Association (IFFA) prohibits GPS use. A European study found that wide midfielders experienced the highest physiological demands in a match and center backs had the lowest.⁵ Wide midfielders and second strikers, the players with greater overall running performance, displayed a higher effort index (which shows mean speed on cardiovascular stress as measured with a heart rate monitor).

In elite soccer, GPS data showed maximal accelerations occurred six times as often as sprints, bringing into question the current belief that repeated sprint ability is essential to team sports.¹ The data also showed clear differences in the players’ running performance when a game is tied or a team is behind or ahead of their opponent.¹

GPS data can indicate player exhaustion and team fitness. Share on X

GPS can also track game fatigue by showing the difference between the highest running intensities during first and last fifteen minutes of the game. The differences can indicate player exhaustion and team fitness.²

Maximal Training Load: Injury and Illness

More studies need to be done to measure the maximum training load that athletes can sustain before increasing the possibility of injuries.² Researchers have found that a spike in training load preceded 42% of illnesses and 40% of injuries.¹

Maximal Training Load: Children

Load is especially important to monitor in youth athletes since they possess inherent differences in physiology, biomechanics, and metabolism.² Unlike adults, children have smaller energy reserves between submaximal and maximal exercise; any given running speed is metabolically more expensive for a child than an adult. Many factors influence this including lower running economy (shorter legs = greater stride frequency, shorter stride length), less efficient mechanics (higher ground impact/braking forces, greater vertical “bounce”), and weak co-contraction of antagonistic muscles because the muscles are underdeveloped.

Since all movement is more costly and demanding for young athletes, their training must be adjusted accordingly. Using GPS can help monitor loads and intensities placed on kids in training to reflect their age and skill level accurately and decrease injuries.

Court-Based Sports

GPS technology has yet to be refined for court-based sports requiring rapid but confined movement patterns and continuous direction changes like tennis and basketball.⁴ A study by Duffield et al. (2010) sought to determine the accuracy and reliability of GPS devices for these types of sports. The technology was compared directly against a VICON motion analysis system. VICON is considered an accurate and reliable, although time-consuming, method of athlete tracking and analysis.

The GPS accuracy was measured at both 1 Hz and 5 Hz trials while the VICON output was 100 Hz. Both GPS trials showed the technology underreported distance, with error ranging from 2-25% depending on distance and speed. It also underestimated peak and mean speed, ranging from 10% to 30% during court-based movement drills.

There is clear evidence that the higher the movement velocity, the lower reliability of the GPS reading.¹ Reliability should improve in the future as satellite communication and tracking becomes more precise. Cummins, Orr, and O’Connor (2013) found that increasing a device’s sampling rate from 1-Hz or 5-Hz to 10-Hz improved the GPS’ reliability during constant velocity as well as accelerating and decelerating movements.

We’ll need higher resolution technology before GPS can become mainstream in court-based sports.

Future Direction

During the next decade, we should see a miniaturization of devices, extension of battery life, and integration of other sensor data, including improvements in accelerometry heart rate, to help better quantify athletes’ efforts.¹ Integrated technology refers to the combined use of GPS, heart rate, and accelerometry for a greater understanding of the metabolic cost and specificity of movement patterns.³

This integrated information will supply coaches with tactical data for play design as well as physiological data for fitness programming.¹ Integrated data will also help coaches simulate competition demands in practice plays with appropriate intensities to avoid overloading their athletes.

Future researchers also may explore biophysical effects in pre- and post-game conditions, such as the effect of supplements on performance, core temperature changes, indirect calorimetry (to accurately measure calorie burn), and hormone responses to training and competition.³ With this information, coaches and athletes may be able to improve plans for recovery and subsequent training sessions.

References

1. Aughey, R. J. (2011). “Applications of GPS Technologies to Field Sports.” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 6(3), 295-310. doi:10.1123/ijspp.6.3.295.
2. Cummins, C., R. Orr, H. O’Connor, and C. West (2013). “Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Microtechnology Sensors in Team Sports: A Systematic Review.” Sports Medicine, 43(10), 1025-1042. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0069-2.
3. Dellaserra, C. L., Y. Gao, and L. Ransdell (2014). “Use of Integrated Technology in Team Sports: A Review of Opportunities, Challenges, and Future Directions for Athletes.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(2), 556-573. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182a952fb.
4. Duffield, R., M. Reid, J. Baker, and W. Spratford (2010). “Accuracy and Reliability of GPS Devices for Measurement of Movement Patterns in Confined Spaces for Court-Based Sports.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, (13), 523-525. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2009.07.003.
5. Torreño, N., D. Munguia-Izquierdo, A. Coutts, E. Sáez de Villarreal, J. Asian-Clemente, and L. Suarez-Arrones (2016). “Relationship Between External and Internal Loads of Professional Soccer Players During Full Matches in Official Games Using Global Positioning Systems and Heart-Rate Technology.” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(7), 940-946. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.2015-0252.
6. Wellman, A. D., S. C. Coad, G. C. Goulet, and C. P. McLellan (2016). “Quantification of Competitive Game Demands of NCAA Division I College Football Players Using Global Positioning Systems.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(1), 11-19. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001206.
7. Wisbey, B., P. G. Montgomery, D. B. Pyne, and B. Rattray (2010). “Quantifying Movement Demands of AFL Football Using GPS Tracking.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 13(5), 531-536. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2009.09.002.

What Is the NordBord?

The NordBord Hamstring Testing System is a fast and easy way to objectively measure eccentric and isometric hamstring strength. The NordBord is the brainchild of Vald Performance, a company based in Brisbane, Australia. Vald Performance is unique, in that the company was born out of a research group at Queensland University of Technology (specifically, Dr. Anthony Shield and Dr. David Opar). I believe that the company’s academic- and research-based origins have helped make a product that is not only easy to use, but also comes with evidence-based guidelines that help drive best practices.

The NordBord Hardware

The NordBord itself measures about 3 feet long and 2 feet wide, most of which is a large padded area for the athlete to kneel on. The pad has “integrated knee position guides” that allow for easy readings of the athlete’s knee position and help with maintaining consistency in knee position from one test to the next (important when calculating torque). Once kneeling, the athlete slips their ankles into the padded ankle hooks and can then perform many different testing protocols (described in more detail later).

The ankle hooks themselves are connected to two force cells that measure the force (in Newtons) at which the ankle hooks are being pulled. The force measured by the two force cells is transmitted in real time to a host computer/tablet via a USB cable.

After 9 months of use and over 400 tests performed, the NordBord operates just like the first time. Share on X

The NordBord itself is simple and very durable. After nine months of use and over 400 tests performed, it looks and operates just like it did the first time I used it. The two steel arms that make up the base of the NordBord have wheels, making it easy to move around the weight room or to different buildings. It can be easily deconstructed by loosening four screws to separate part of the base arms from the pad. The ankle hooks also can be unscrewed for easier travel. That being said, it definitely isn’t something that is convenient to travel with. It still would need its own bag and someone to carry that bag (but if you have the manpower, anything can be done).

The Scorebord and the Dashbord

The software provided with the NordBord has two separate platforms, the “Scorebord” and the “Dashbord.” The Scorebord gives the practitioner and the athlete real-time feedback on how much force is being recorded by the force cells for both the right and left limbs, as well as the percent discrepancy between the two. You can also view the previous test scores or the average of multiple previous test scores on this screen. The real-time feedback and the previous scores are great for giving athletes something to shoot for and it increases competitiveness if you use it in a team environment. This can be enhanced by projecting the Scorebord onto a large screen, as shown below.

The Dashbord is a cloud-based data storage platform. You can access player data on the computer with the Vald Performance software installed, and also through a web browser on any other device. One of the key features of the Dashbord is the ability to compare athlete scores as text or in a simple bar graph. The most useful feature is the ability to export data in Excel or .csv formats.

You can group tests by player, position, team, or test date, which makes for very easy data analysis on the back end. The exported data includes the raw scores for all of the tests selected, as well as other basic statistics for the selected population such as average, first quartile, and standard deviation for all tests included. All of this data can be exported in bar graphs and line graphs that show the force-time relationship of each rep. This all makes for even easier analysis and data visualization.

The Metrics Gathered by the NordBord

The vast majority of the research on hamstring strength as it relates to hamstring injuries (HSIs) done by the NordBord research group (Shields, Opar, Timmins, etc.) focuses on eccentric strength displayed during a Nordic Hamstring Curl. Therefore, it seems that the peak and average forces an athlete is able to produce during three consecutive Nordic Curls is the most useful of the data measured by the NordBord (1, 2, 4).

After strength, the between limb strength asymmetry displayed by the athlete is a metric of secondary importance (1). However, the software allows for the practitioner to select between a number of different hamstring exercises, including the Razor Curl; a 30-degree, 60-degree, and prone isometric hold; and any custom protocols developed by the practitioner. Outside of peak and average forces produced, the software also provides peak and average toque.

Using the Data

Currently, we use the data to customize the volume, frequency, and mode of eccentric hamstring work that our athletes do. After an initial four-week block when every athlete does Nordic hamstring curls two times a week, we then test the athletes on the NordBord. It is worth noting that athletes tend to be very sore the following few days after testing on the NordBord, so an initial acclimation period where the athletes perform Nordic Curls regularly for a few weeks is advised. Our four-week acclimation block is as follows (each performed 2x/week):

1. Week 1 – 2×3
2. Week 2 – 3×3
3. Week 3 – 3×4
4. Week 4 – 3×5

After the initial acclimation block, we test all of our athletes on the NordBord using the three Nordic Curls protocol, and then make adjustments to their training based on the results.

Based on the current literature regarding eccentric hamstring strength and limb asymmetry, we look for our athletes to be able to produce >340 N of force in both limbs, with a between limb strength asymmetry of <15% (1,2). After testing, we put the athletes in one of three interventions based on their results.

Intervention 1 is for athletes who can produce >340 N of average force in both limbs and have a between limb asymmetry of <15%. These athletes will perform Razor curls (a more intense eccentric hamstring exercise) 1x/week. While these athletes can produce sufficient levels of force that statistically puts them at a reduced risk for injury (2), there is still value in having them continue to perform eccentric contractions on a regular basis to maintain the structural adaptations of increased hamstring fascicle length (4). Research suggests that these structural adaptations can dissipate in as few as four weeks following the cessation of eccentric hamstring training (4).

If the athlete displays an ability to produce >340 N of force in both limbs, but has a between limb strength discrepancy >15%, then they will perform band-assisted, unilateral Nordic Curls 1x/week. They will perform a greater amount of volume on the weaker leg (usually four sets compared to two) in order to try to bring up the strength levels of the weaker leg to that of the stronger one.

If the athlete is not able to produce >340 N of force in either limb, then they will continue with regular bilateral Nordic Curls 1x/week and band-assisted bilateral Nordic Curls 1x/week. The band allows for the athlete to get into a position of increased knee extension and work the more distal portion of the hamstrings in that position.

Outside of using the data as a means to measure strength progress, the data can also be useful for return to play (RTP) protocols for athletes that experience a HSI. We currently require the athlete to be at 90% of their pre-injury strength values before they are able to fully participate in practice. Other markers go into this decision as well, but the NordBord provides useful, objective strength measures that ultimately help the medical staff in making RTP decisions.

The NordBord’s Value

In my opinion, the NordBord is the best available tool to quickly and easily assess eccentric hamstring strength, but it is by no means inexpensive. While Vald Performance offers different pricing structures to different clients, you can expect to pay around $5,000/year for the hardware, software, and support. The support is top shelf, and includes access to some of the leading researchers in the world when it comes to training to reduce the risk of hamstring injuries. If you can afford it, I don’t think there is a better option on the market.

The NordBord is the best available tool to quickly and easily assess eccentric hamstring strength. Share on X

However, the NordBord is still a luxury tool, and is by no means a necessity. Nordic Hamstring Curls work. If your athletes are compliant in terms of giving their best effort with the exercise, and the exercises are performed on a regular basis (minimum 1x/week), the athletes will get stronger. For example, our soccer players improved their eccentric hamstring strength by an average of 45 N in-season by performing Nordics only 1x/week (and never more than 15 total reps/session).

In the off-season, we have seen lacrosse players improve eccentric hamstring strength by more than 100 N in eight weeks by simply following the protocol outlined earlier in this article. However, the NordBord provides data that gives the practitioner objective feedback on exactly how strong the athletes are (which is useful for RTP protocols), as well as otherwise unobtainable more-nuanced information such as between limb strength discrepancies.

It’s the Best on the Market

If you are involved in a sport where HSIs are a primary concern (i.e., track athletes and most field-based sports), the NordBord provides objective, detailed, and actionable data to drive your programming. If you can afford the cost, there is nothing on the market better than the NordBord.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Bourne M. N., D. A. Opar, M. D. Williams, et al. (2015). “Eccentric Knee-flexor Strength and Hamstring Injury Risk in Rugby Union: A prospective study.” Am J Sports Med, 43: 2663-70.
2. Opar, D. A., M. D. Williams, R. G. TIimmins, J. Hickey, S. J. Duhig, and A. J. Shield. (2015). “Eccentric Hamstring Strength and Hamstring Injury Risk in Australian Footballers.” Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 47(4): 857-865.
3. Timmins, R. G., J. D. Ruddy, J. Presland, N. Maniar, A. J. Shield, M. D. Williams, and D. A. Opar. (2016). “Architectural Changes of the Biceps Femoris Long Head after Concentric or Eccentric Training.” Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 48(3): 499-508.
4. Timmins R. G., M.N. Bourne, A. J. Shield, M. D. Williams, C. Lorenzen, D. A. Opar. “Short Biceps Femoris Fascicles and Eccentric Knee Flexor Weakness Increase the Risk of Hamstring Injury in Elite Football (Soccer): A Prospective Cohort Study.” Br J Sports Med Published Online First: doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095362.

 

Technical Training

Technical training is an important element in any training program. For a long jumper, it can take many forms. Some aspects are subtle and, at first glance, may not appear related to the technical model. I believe, however, that all training components can be linked in some way, and it’s simply a matter of perspective and deeper thinking that allows us to make the connection.

Throughout this article, I will discuss areas of technical training that I believe essential for the development of long jumpers. I will categorize each element and provide a clear understanding of how to build a comprehensive technical training system. I will also include a guide to long jumping technique and discuss important technical aspects as they pertain to particular drills and training methods.

Developing the Approach Run

I will begin with the approach run, the most important aspect of the long jump, from both a technical and performance perspective.

More than 95% of the distance achieved during the long jump is determined by the speed generated during the athlete’s approach. A successful approach run is complex and involves several distinct components. I’ll focus on the technical aspects of each training component.

Acceleration

As an absolute quality, the ability to accelerate plays an important role for maximum velocity. During an approach run, where most athletes are limited to 18-23 strides (35-55m), acceleration technique is considerably important. The goal is not only to achieve near maximum velocity but to do so in rhythm with correct posture and timing.

A jumper must accelerate smoothly and relaxed for successful transitioning during the final 10m and through takeoff. The ability to accelerate fast and relaxed while demonstrating upright running mechanics is key and requires considerable practice.

Depending on the time of year, acceleration sessions generally occur 2-3 times per week. Running at lower intensities is included on other days and serves well for rhythm, technique, and recovery.

Acceleration sessions require repeated bouts of sprinting over 20-40m performed at 95-100% effort. Relaxation and smooth sprinting mechanics are key and must transfer to approach running.

Max Velocity

Our goal is to develop athletes who will reach high maximum velocities without straining or demonstrating inefficient sprint technique.

As stated, horizontal velocity is the largest determining factor when achieving elite distances. Due to the technical aspects of the takeoff and flight phases, however, it is rarely possible or advantageous for athletes to reach 100% of maximum speed during their approach. Therefore, the relative approach speed becomes very valuable.

We know the approach velocities required to achieve certain distances, and we know the relationship between horizontal velocities and takeoff angle. Through maximum speed development, we can create a speed buffer. This buffer allows the athlete to achieve high velocities while maintaining optimal technique and focus without straining or feeling out of control.

Developing maximum velocity starts with the ability to both accelerate efficiently and maintain a high level of coordination and synchronicity over a 35-55m distance.

Fly sprints are particularly useful when focusing on max velocity mechanics and high-speed output in isolation. After a period of acceleration work, I gradually introduce fly sprints to the program. I like to use a 35m gradual acceleration (25m for women) into a 10-30m zone. I’ve found that 95-98% of max velocity can be achieved via a gradual (slightly sub max) acceleration while maintaining a smooth and relaxed sprinting technique. Fly sprints, my favorite method, closely resemble a long jumper’s approach.

I generally progress the speed program by including Sprint–Float–Sprints (SFS). SFS creates the perfect bridge between fly sprints and special speed endurance development that occurs next and last in the speed progression. I start around 90m total length and progress to 150m. The total length is broken down into sections. For example, a 90m SFS may include a 30m acceleration followed by a 30m float section followed by a final 30m sprint.

It’s important to understand the purpose and requirements of the float section. During the float, I cue the athlete to switch off the burners while maintaining as much speed as possible. The approach run requires relaxed and controlled speed. Achieving high speed in this manner is a skill, and the practice of smooth accelerations, fly sprints, SFS, and slower extensive tempo running sessions all contribute to development.

The final progression involves special speed endurance work. This follows two basic formats, one for short speed endurance and one for long speed endurance. A short speed endurance protocol could be 2x5x40m sprints at 90% with 2 min and 6 min recovery. One protocol for long speed endurance could be 4x150m sprint at 90% with 8 min recovery. Developing speed endurance enhances an athlete’s freedom when running at high speeds; another method to help improve high velocity sprinting while relaxed. Without specifically discussing sprint technique, we can see the common technical themes throughout all speed development methods as they relate to the long jump approach.

Approaches

Approach development becomes the focal point throughout the competitive period and special training phases. Here, the countless hours developing technique and sprinting speed are put to practical use.

The most important technical cue word is rhythm. Rhythm has a personal touch. A successful approach has a steady and consistent build of energy, and achieving this can be very difficult. It requires a certain connection to the approach and a high-level kinesthetic awareness. Both can be learned and practiced.

Approach development starts early in the program and should be a conscious thought during build ups, strides, accelerations, and fly sprints. Rhythmic sprint drills can also teach the gradual build.

Runway work is essential, and the volume and frequency of runway practice increase throughout the preparation and competition phases. Generally I start developing rhythm away from the runway because the takeoff board can be distracting in the early phases. After the initial rhythm isolation and transitioning and takeoff work, I gradually blend everything together via a combination of drills, short approach jumps, and full approach run-throughs.

Specific technical aspects of the approach are addressed in various ways because there are several components to consider. The primary areas of focus include:

• Number of approach strides
• Starting method
• Approach rhythm and style

Characteristics of good approach running include a tall posture, an elastic bouncy stride with a high front side action, and large overall amplitude. Ideally an athlete demonstrates an active build with no wasted strides. Strides are powerful, dynamic, and rhythmic. Correct energy expenditure is essential, and allowing momentum to carry an athlete is a specific skill. Throughout the season, these aspects are discussed and practiced hundreds of times.

I determine approach length and stride number largely based on the athlete’s ability to achieve their highest approach speeds. I decide this regardless of whether the athlete can successfully transition and takeoff at that particular speed. Maximum relative approach speed gives athlete the greatest chance of success and they will develop the ability to handle their fastest approach speeds over time. Optimal stride number often can be determined from acceleration and fly speed tests performed regularly throughout the preparation period.

Having determined approach stride number, we begin to develop an approach style. I prefer to use a similar approach style. Ideally, athletes practice a gradual and smooth acceleration through the board with specific stride characteristics. There are athletes, however, who have a strong ability to maintain speed without technical breakdown. These athletes may benefit from a slightly different approach rhythm. An altered starting method and more aggressive acceleration style may work best. It’s very important to experiment to determine which method works best for each individual. In this video, Carl Lewis demonstrates an ideal approach rhythm and running style for horizontal jumpers. Seoul 1988 Olympics.

Developing Steering, Accuracy, Control

I am a huge believer in approach skill and board accuracy. I mention the two separately because they are very different. Many jumpers have excellent approach accuracy and consistency but poor board accuracy resulting in a high fouling percentage. The consistent 1-inch fouler is extremely common among all levels in the horizontal jumping events. For those that fall into this category, I believe the issue is psychological.

Several common practices exist that create a fouling mentality, and I use several training methods to help combat the issue. I want to stress that these training methods are effective only if athletes make a conscious effort and demand the execution of legal jumps. Fouling is a psychological choice.

Here are psychological factors that contribute to fouling.

 

Many jumpers do several, if not all, of the above. Coaches often believe fouling requires moving the starting mark back a few inches. Sure, some athletes need more room to execute their ideal running style and rhythm and should move back their starting marks. But if technique and rhythm are ideal and an athlete is fouling by a close margin each time, moving the starting block simply takes the responsibility away from the athlete. This basically allows athletes to leave fouling, or legal jumping, to chance.

Here are several factors that contribute to legal jumping and approach and board accuracy.

 

Developing Approach Accuracy

Approach accuracy needs considerable focus throughout the yearly training calendar. I’ll describe important practices to consider during technical training.

Neither approach nor board accuracy is a blind act. They both require deliberate strategies and the use of visual guidance. In my experience, one of the more difficult habits to develop among jumpers is maintaining eye contact with the board. Maintaining visual focus on the target throughout all but the approach’s final stride significantly increases board accuracy.

1) Establishing a Phase 1 Mark

The approach is sectioned into three phases. The first two phases are controlled, deliberate, and practiced hundreds of times. For simplicity, a 20-stride approach for an elite male jumper will require a phase 1 mark at step 6. I like long powerful strides to establish the beginning rhythm of the approach run. I believe aggressive and long ground contacts are better for establishing a consistent rhythm. The athlete must hit the 6 step mark every time during all approach runs and jumps, both short and full.

2) Establishing a Phase 2 Mark

Phase 2 is the final controlled portion of the approach and sets up the all-important final 6 strides toward the board. The 14th stride contact establishes the phase 2 marker. Generally, since the athlete’s eyes are fixed on the takeoff board during this phase, the marker is for the coaches.

Consistency and accuracy during the first two phases will significantly increase effective steering during the final phase. Less error early equals less adjustment later.

Horizontal Jumps: less error early equals less adjustment later. Share on X

Develop Board Accuracy and Steering

Now that we understand what contributes to the fouling epidemic and how to fix it, we can discuss drills and training methods to develop the habit and skill of legal jumping.

To enhance the learning effect, I’m a big believer in practicing skills in various ways. Board accuracy is no different. Increasing the need to make approach adjustments forces the athlete to cognitively engage in the process of targeting.

1) Full and Short Approach Jumping (Varied Start Method)

During the Varied Start Method, the athlete first establishes an accurate approach mark, one where they can consistently hit the board with a rough variability of 10-20cm. With the starting mark established, the coach starts the athlete’s approach from a different mark, either forward or back within a 30-60cm range. From this new starting mark, the athlete is expected to maintain at least the 10-20cm board accuracy.

2) Full and Short Approach Jumping (Varied Targeting Method)

The Varied Targeting Method also promotes cognitive board awareness. Here the athlete starts the approach from an accurate starting mark and receives specific board targeting instructions. For example, during attempt 1 they’re asked to strike 30cm before the board, and during attempt 2 they’re asked to strike with a toe on the board. Coaches can use many variations.

3) Short Approach Jumping (Forced Legal Method)

During the Forced Legal Method, the athlete has no option to foul because the foul portion of the board is blocked. I’ve placed bright cones along the board’s fouling section to prevent the athlete from hitting it. Wood or other barriers can be used. It may sound dangerous, but in my experience, every athlete hits the legal portion of the board if the option to foul no longer exists. This echoes the fact that fouling is largely psychological.

4) Continuous Hurdle Jumps

I find continuous takeoff drills great for developing rhythm, timing, and elastic qualities. Randomly changing hurdle position forces the athlete to develop awareness and, over time, the ability to instantly adjust stride length with minimal loss of speed, rhythm, and timing.

These 4 methods are my go-to methods for working on board accuracy skill. At the very least, they can help shift focus from jumping distance to technique. But I don’t use them with all athletes, as some tend to overanalyze and the methods become detrimental. If the athlete has great discipline and focus, none of the methods are needed.

Developing the Takeoff

The Takeoff Model

The takeoff cannot occur without the penultimate stride. The two are essentially linked, and every action that occurs with either stride affects the other. We cannot talk about one without talking about the other. Therefore, we shouldn’t practice one without practicing the other. Certainly, the two have their own distinct characteristics, but it’s their connection that makes the technique whole. We should only isolate the movements for absolute beginners.

Here are my key characteristics for the penultimate stride and takeoff as well as commonly seen errors.

 

 

 

 

Takeoff Specific Drills

The following drills are excellent for teaching and establishing the correct movement programming and timing sequences to achieve these technical aspects. I will discuss how and where to implement these drills later in the article.

• Standing Penultimate: Penultimate leg bent at knee up, land with heal lead, roll on and off foot
• Continuous Knee Drive Drill: Drive free leg knee up and down with support leg stiff hopping forward
• 1 Step Takeoffs: Continuous takeoffs with 1 running step in between
• 3 Step Takeoffs: Continuous takeoffs with 3 running steps in between
• 5 Step Takeoffs: Continuous takeoffs with 5 running steps in between
• Alternate Easy Skip with Aggressive Skip: Drive knee on aggressive skip like a takeoff
• Power Skips: Alternate jumps working on knee drives
• Mini Hurdle Takeoffs: Work on penetration past hurdle
• High Hurdle Takeoffs: Work on vertical components of jump
• Penultimate Step Box Drill: Run penultimate off low box onto takeoff and jump
• S/L Depth Takeoff: Drop from low box into takeoff action
• S/L Depth Takeoff with Preceding Running Strides: As above with a run onto the box
• Short Run Jumps with and without Landing with and without Weight Vest: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, etc., strides
• Rhythm Runs with a Pop Up: 70-80% runs with a pop up at end

Video 2. Ivan Pedroso demonstrates the ideal long jump takeoff.

Developing the Flight

The Flight Model

Don’t overcomplicate the ideal flight action. The 2-and-a-half hitch kick is a poor choice for almost all jumpers. Simply put, few jumpers historically have achieved ideal landing positions while performing this technique.

The flight’s purpose is to counter forward rotation and set up an ideal landing position. In this regard, the flight can greatly impact the outcome of a jump. I find that a basic hang or 1-and-half hitch is ideal. Of the two, I prefer the hang; it’s easier to coordinate the ideal landing position during the simplest flight technique.

Here are the key characteristics of the flight phase as well as commonly seen errors.

 

 

Flight Specific Drills

Because the recommended flight drills require the preceding takeoff, we can use the majority of the takeoff drills listed. Raising the takeoff board during short approach jumps allows the athlete to achieve height with less effort during takeoff. This option is beneficial when more repetitions are required to work specifically on mechanics. Otherwise, I don’t use this option regularly with my athletes.

Developing the Landing

The landing phase changes more competition outcomes than fouling in my opinion. Many factors lead to a successful landing, and it’s not an easy technique to consistently perform correctly. As mentioned earlier, the execution of the flight determines much of what is achieved during the landing.

Horizontal Jumps: execution of the flight determines much of what is achieved during the landing. Share on X

Understanding how an optimal landing looks is an important starting point because many jumpers or coaches don’t appear to know or care.

The Landing Model

A successful long jump takeoff requires great hip displacement past the takeoff board. Obviously long legs help greatly, and this concept transfers to the landing. If great hip displacement occurs at both takeoff and landing, the jumper reduces the flight distance. This becomes increasingly important the longer the athlete jumps.

So, for the landing, the athlete must achieve the correct position before contact with the sand. Here we want a vertical, or slightly leaned back, torso with hips ahead of the shoulders. This allows the knees to fully extend before contacting the sand with the heels. At the instant of the heel strike, the hamstrings and glutes aggressively contract. This action combined with forward momentum forces the athlete’s hips to travel past the point where the heel strike occurred.

The correct landing action is essential but, without perfect timing, many errors occur. Here are the key characteristics of a good landing and commonly seen errors.

 

 

Landing Specific Drills

As with flight technique, practice methods that isolate the landing serve little to no purpose past the beginning stages.

Very early in development, several method drills can establish awareness of certain technical goals and expectations. Sitting on a chair while actively heel striking the sand, for example, can teach a young athlete to extend their legs and engage the hamstrings during the movement. We can progress this to a standing long jump exercise practicing the same movement. These type of drills, however, will have little carry over to event specific requirements if we don’t implement whole practice jumping.

 

The Technical Training System

During this article, I’ve discussed many training methods, drills, and exercises that help develop specific technical qualities. I’ve also detailed technical characteristics, common errors, and coaching cues.

In the world of Track and Field, drills, and there are hundreds of them, are the centerpiece of many training programs. Coaches will spend hours painstakingly researching, practicing, and creating drills designed to teach technical aspects of the event.

Unfortunately drills are often practiced with little to no realization of the drill’s actual purpose. Drills can be as irrelevant and meaningless as they can be masterful for skill acquisition. The most important aspect of any drill is how the coach or athlete identifies and connects fundamentals to the overall goal.

Drills can be as irrelevant and meaningless as they can be masterful for skill acquisition. Share on X

A drill by itself isn’t enough to teach a skill. Awareness must be established early in technical development about the purpose, goals, and outcomes desired from all drills and technical practices. As long as connections are made between each drill and the event’s fundamental requirements, we may see successful transfer.

The Periodization of Technical Training

Having established the ingredients of technical training, we must address long-term planning and progression. Important aspects of successful technical programs are the progression and timing of technical exercises and practice types. Just like speed, strength, and power development, technical training should follow a periodized plan. Basically, we should divide technical training into training phases that blend seamlessly with one another over time. Each phase will build on another, gradually shifting toward the big picture of the event specific requirements of speed, timing, and psychological stress.

General Preparation

Technical training begins, as does physical training, during the General Preparation Phase. Here we introduce technical models accompanied by partial drills and preparatory exercises. Video analysis work begins to provide a deep understanding of the end goal. I also include weekly visualization sessions of the whole skill (full event situation technique) during all phases of the year in gradually increasing and eventually decreasing amounts.

During this time, technical training’s purpose is to introduce and teach, not to spend an exhaustive amount of time perfecting these drills. Below is an example of a technical training session that’s incorporated into a 6-day training week. This particular session is specific to long jump but technical emphasis is also placed on sprinting, plyometric, weight lifting, and throwing sessions.

• General Warm Up, Static Flex, Sprint Drills: 10-15 mins
• Hurdle Drills
  Focus: Tall posture, hip extension, control, coordination, awareness
• 4x40m Build Ups
  Focus: Rhythm, long pushes, tall posture, bounce
• Walking Knee Drive Switches: 4x20m
  Focus: Rapid ground strike and knee drive, posture, control
• Alternate Skipping for Height: 4x30m
  Focus: Flat foot strikes, swinging free leg, posture, alignment, stability
• 4 Step Long Jump Takeoffs
  Focus: Tall bouncing approach, fast takeoff strike, hip displacement, aggressive free leg drive, tall flight posture

Specific Preparation

Specific Preparation begins the Integration Phase. Here the partial skills learned during General Preparation are progressed further to more closely resemble the event’s competitive demands. Full jumping from shorter approaches becomes the glue of all technical drills and must become a program’s focus. Top speed development begins during this phase, and we gradually introduce the full approach run.

Below is an example of a technical training session incorporated into a 6-day training week during this phase. During another day of the week, we begin full approach development by establishing steps, rhythm, and check marks. Typically, this begins away from the takeoff board.

• General Warm Up, Dynamic Flex, Sprint Drills: 10-15 mins
• Hurdle Drills
  Focus: Tall posture, hip extension, control, coordination, awareness
• 4x40m Build Ups
  Focus: Rhythm, long pushes, tall posture, bounce
• Continuous Takeoffs: 4x30m at 80%
  Focus: Rapid ground strike and knee drive, posture, control
• Short Approach Jumps: 6-12 jumps (6, 8, 10 strides)
  Focus: Full takeoff and flight, with or without landing, board accuracy, rhythm

Special Preparation, Competition

By this time, the athlete is gearing for competition and we’ve established a solid base of both physical and technical training. The athlete is now ready for competition intensity and has a strong understanding and awareness of their technical readiness. Short approach jumping remains the emphasis and the approach length becomes closer to competition distance.

Full approach sessions are also in full swing, and it isn’t uncommon to begin full approach takeoffs as well. I firmly believe that it’s very difficult to bridge the gap between increased sprinting speed and short approach technique without performing full speed jumps or, at least, takeoffs. During this phase, we only use partial skill exercises when issues arise and technical fixes are needed.

Below is an example of a technical training session that’s incorporated into a 6-day training week during this phase.

• General Warm Up, Dynamic Flex, Sprint Drills: 10-15 mins
• Hurdle Drills
  Focus: Tall posture, hip extension, control, coordination, awareness
• 4x40m Build Ups
  Focus: Rhythm, long pushes, tall posture, bounce
• Full Approach Runs: x6-8
  Focus: Check marks, rhythm, bounce, 11-1m speeds, transition
• Short Approach Jumps: 6-8 jumps (10, 12, 14 strides)
  Focus: Full takeoff and flight, with or without landing, board accuracy, and rhythm

Organizing the Weekly Program

I’ll close with a brief discussion about training structure as it pertains to technical training. It’s important to understand the context into which the sessions fit as part of the overall training structure. I will not go into great detail here. Instead, I’ll give several examples showing how the puzzle pieces can fit together.

 

 

 

Closing Thoughts

There’s a lot to consider when planning technical training, from exercise and drill selection to teaching strategies and ways to incorporate technical work into the weekly plan.

A successful program shouldn’t be determined by a single drill or series of progressions. More important is that we promote understanding and a self-correcting culture with our athletes. Coaches should teach drills they understand and that relate to the technical model. Always determine the purpose of an exercise and how it fits with the big picture before implementing it into the program. A drill is useless if the athlete doesn’t get it, and a coach must find a way to connect what the athlete is doing to what they think they’re doing.

Technical progressions are essential and should reflect the training of the particular phase. All training components should coincide and reflect the long-term plan. It,s important to be flexible and highly adaptive as an athlete rarely goes through a season following plan A. Coaching is a process of analyzing and adapting and requires a highly interactive approach on a daily basis.

Sometimes it’s OK to perform a drill that doesn’t make sense to anyone but the athlete. Legendary coach Randy Huntington once said, “Sometimes we do and say stupid things in order to get the job done.” Having worked with youth athletes for many years, I certainly echo these words.

As an avid learner, I spend much time reaching out to established experts on the horizontal jumps. I would like to thank several coaches for sharing their time and wisdom with me. I owe a lot of my development as an athlete and coach to them. Thank you to Randy Huntington, Mike Young, Jeremy Fischer, Dan Pfaff, Nic Peterson, Boo Schexnayder, and Carl Valle.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

 

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…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

 

Introduction

Field sports are sports such as soccer, rugby union and rugby league, Australian Rules football (AFL), Gaelic football and field hockey. They are characterized by a somewhat stop-start nature, varying movement speeds, multiple changes of direction and the execution of decisions and individual skills under conditions of game pressure and/or fatigue and in the case of some of those sports, the threat of imminent collisions. The nature of the movements in these sports requires the utilization, and therefore training, of all three energy systems (ATP-PC, Glycolitic/Lactic acid and Aerobic systems). However despite the often stop-start nature of these sports, which heralds an increase in anaerobic energy contributions (10), high-intensity aerobic power and conditioning can be critical for success in field sports (4).

The purpose of this article is to detail a number of methods to develop high intensity aerobic conditioning and describe the practical implementation and integration of these methods into the Preparation Period training for field sport athletes.

Recent applied research in aerobic training for field sports

Much research is now focused on Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS). Research shows that the amount of time spent at or above the 100% Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS) appears to be the critical factor for improving aerobic power (5-15).

It has been determined that performing a number of short intervals at > 100% MAS was a more effective method of building aerobic power than the more traditional Long Slow Distance (LSD) training (14) (i.e. going for long road runs etc) or than attempting to train only one interval continuously at 100% MAS (13).

Specifically, an intensity of 120% MAS was determined to be the best single speed for short intervals that are followed by a short respite (passive rest) interval, based upon the fact that this intensity allowed the greatest supra-maximal training impulse (intensity x volume), in comparison to 90, 100, and 140% MAS (13). Especially intervals of 120% MAS for 15-30 seconds followed by an equal respite interval of passive rest and continuing on for 5-10 minutes.

A Japanese researcher called Tabata (14) also found that athletes working at 170% VO2 Max (the % MAS was not reported) for 20 seconds followed by 10 seconds passive rest and continuing on this manner for 4-minutes produced excellent changes in aerobic and anaerobic power, better than performing LSD training sessions of 60-minutes at 70% MAS. However, the high intensity group also improved 28% in anaerobic performance while the low intensity group was unchanged. Accordingly, given the greater results and less time investment, it was considered that the high intensity training was much more efficacious than LSD training. This type of training is typically now known as the Tabata method.

The basis of all this recent research is that high intensity intervals of 15-30+ seconds, interspersed with 10-30 seconds of either low intensity active recovery (eg. < 40-70% MAS) or passive rest, continued in this manner for total set times of 4-10 minutes and repeated for 2 or more sets greatly enhances aerobic power and capacity.

It didn’t matter much if it was 20 seconds work, 10 seconds recovery, 30:15, 15:15, the research has kept pointing to the fact that training at or above 100% MAS was the key intensity parameter and how long you spent there was the driving volume parameter under-pinning improvements in aerobic power.

Consequently high-intensity interval training using intensities of 100% MAS to develop the ability to sustain high intensity efforts or intervals at 120%+ MAS to develop higher levels of MAS or enhance the ability to repeat high intensity efforts appear to be increasingly used in the training of field sport athletes (e.g. 1-15). The practical implementation of a number of these methods will be detailed below.

But what about the polarity of aerobic training? Isn’t that how the endurance athletes are training?

While true aerobic endurance athletes (e.g. distance runners, cyclists, triathletes etc) talk about the effectiveness of the polarity of training (using predominantly LSD < 85% MAS, with a portion, say 20%, of very high intensity training >92% MAS), it must be remembered that for field sport athletes, practical observation has shown that most of the skill and tactical training undertaken are at LSD type of speeds and heart rates. Thus, given that skill and tactical training with the sports coach is the major form of training performed by field sport athletes for most of the season and this training involves cardio-vascular stimulation at the lower end of the “polarity spectrum”, the role of the strength and conditioning coach is to provide a high-intensity stimulus to improve aerobic fitness.

I will give you an example. When I worked in professional rugby league, over the last few years all the players wore GPS for every field training session and for games. We know that in games the players, depending upon their position and role, cover about 100-110 m/minute. This is similar in soccer but AFL football average about 125-145+ m/min because they are allowed over 100 substitutions per game, so they go hard and then get subbed off for a short respite before doing it again.

But what distances do field sport athletes cover in skill/tactical sessions? Typically from my sport of NRL rugby league it is about 55-65 m/min (this is lower than soccer and AFL training sessions but in NRL the nature of the games are collisions etc). Typically performed skill and tactical training does not improve fitness but in its way it provides the polar opposite to the high intensity aerobic training I am about to discuss and it constitutes the vast majority of the training week for field sport athletes. Therefore when a strength & conditioning coach has access to the players for conditioning, they must utilize high-intensity methods, with relative velocities of 140-160+m/min (this is inclusive of the rest periods, so for example 15-sec at 5 m/s followed by 15/sec rest x 2 = 150 m/min). This then is the polarity of their training for field sport athletes – mostly the skill and tactical work is done at low intensity, so the specific conditioning must be done at high intensity.

Field testing of MAS – Measuring Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS)

There is some controversy about how to measure MAS for field sports (4). The MAS is physiologically defined as the lowest speed at which VO2 maximum (VO2 max) has occurred. In a laboratory this is measured with gas analysis while running on a treadmill, according to a number of accepted routines. However, some athletes can still run slightly faster than the first speed at which VO2 maximum has occurred without any change in VO2max ~ so there can be a slight difference in speeds at which VO2 max is occurring (but physiologically, the lowest speed at which VO2max occurred is the definition of MAS). This fact is one of the many confounding factors that sometimes cloud the issue of measuring MAS in athletes for the purpose of diagnosis and training prescription. Other simple ones include differences between treadmill running and running on a sports field!

Nonetheless for field sports, MAS should be assessed during running based tests. Over the years a number of simple running-based field based tests have been developed that correlate with MAS measured via the treadmill/gas analysis method(s). Some field tests are continuous, some are intermittent, some are linear running, some are shuttle-based running, some are incremental and some are steady-paced.

The most common field tests of MAS include the Montreal Beep test, the Multistage Shuttle Beep test, the YoYo IR1 test, time trials with set times (eg. 5-minutes or 6-minutes) or set distances that take the athletes between 5- to 7-minutes to complete (eg. 1200-m, 1500m, 2000-m). Some of these tests have been further modified, such as the Montreal test being altered to include 1-minute stages, rather than 2-minute stages and so on.

The choice of tests and their merits sometimes cloud the issue of measuring MAS in athletes and the pro’s and cons of each method is not the scope of this article.

In certain tests, the MAS is simply the speed attained in the final leg of the test eg. Montreal Beep test or YoYo IR1 test. However if the Multistage Shuttle Beep test is used, then this equation:

must be used to correct for the fact that the constant decelerations involved with shuttling/change of directions reduces the true MAS (8).

These tests give results expressed as km/hr, which will then need to be converted to m/s so that training distances can be easily calculated. For example, Level 12 Multistage Beep, = 14 km/hr * 1.34 = 18.86, minus 2.86 then equals 15.9 km/hr or 4.4m/s.

For a set-time trial MAS test, for example, a 5-min time running trial, determining the average speed is a simple process (eg. 1320 meters divided by 300 s = 4.4 m/s). The simple 5-minute time trial has been shown to correlate very highly (r = 0.94) with MAS (7).

If using set distances, the time taken to complete the distance should be between 5- to 7-minutes. For example, if an athlete ran 1400-m in 318-seconds, then the MAS would be 4.4 m/s.

So once MAS is determined, it is very easy then to prescribe training. An example of a simple 5-minute field test for a theoretical soccer team with disparate MAS scores is outlined in Table 1. Training prescription for the following methods will then be illustrated using these theoretical scores.

Different Methods of High-Intensity Training

Outlined below are a number of different methods that may be applicable to the training of high-intensity aerobic training for field sport athletes. They are presented in the order that they should be presented to the athletes.

Long Intervals

Long intervals (LI) of 60-seconds up to 5-minutes can provide a training impulse (volume x intensity) base before progressing to training of higher intensity. They are best used in the early Preparation period, because the underlying objective is to increase the volume of work performed at high intensity (> 92 % MAS) and as such may not integrate well with other training such as skill and tactical units. The lower the MAS score the athlete possesses, the more beneficial LI are as a training stimulus. Consequently, elite field sport athletes may spend less time (or even no time) performing LI as compared to developing or teenage athletes.

Typically these intervals would be completed at an intensity above critical speed (aka “anaerobic threshold” or about 85% MAS). The longer the interval, the lower the intensity, so 3-minutes @ 90-100% MAS may be a better upper limit of interval length. When performing multiple repetitions, it is very difficult to maintain a time limit of 66% of the interval best (ie. If an athlete can hold 100% MAS for 5-minutes in a one-off maximum effort test, they find it very difficult to perform multiple repetitions of 3-minute intervals at 100% MAS).

For LI the work:recovery ratios are typically above 1:1 (eg. 3:2) or, at 1:1. If the ratios go much more than 3:1, then typically for LI, the % MAS is reduced, to say <90%. As most LI are already just below the desirable 100% MAS, this is not a preferred prescription.

So 4-6 repetitions of 3-minutes at 95% MAS with a 2-minute recovery (1.5:1) or 90-s at 100% MAS with a 90-s recovery (1:1) are quite challenging prescriptions in the initial General Preparation Phase.

There may need to be variation in the length of LI’s and the scope for reducing LI length and slightly increasing % MAS clearly exists. For example, if LI were performed 3/wk, then one day may be:

• Day 1. (6 x 3-minute intervals at 92% MAS with 2-minute recoveries) x 2-sets,
• Day 2. (5 x 2-minute intervals at 96% MAS with 2-minute recoveries) x 2-sets, and
• Day 3. (4 x 90-seconds at 100% MAS with 90-second recoveries) x 2-sets, with 3-minute rests between sets on all days.

Thus the total training time for these three LI sessions (excluding warm-up etc) would be 63-minutes, 43-minutes and 27-minutes. In this scenario, the Day 1 session is of such magnitude and effort that realistically no other meaningful training in other units (eg. skill and team tactics) may be possible. However the Day 2 and 3 sessions, with reduced training impulse and duration, could involve other units such as skills or tactics as well as speed technique drilling before the start of the conditioning block. This is why this of type of training is really only recommended in the initial weeks General Preparation phase (unless the volume is severely curtailed).

Maximal Aerobic “Grids” Method

The Maximum Aerobic Grids Method is also termed the 100% MAS:70% MAS Method. Based upon French research, coaches have developed a system called (among other names) the Maximal Aerobic Grids (aka “boxes” or “rectangles” method). This entailed training initially with short intervals of 15-30 seconds at 100-110% MAS interspersed with 15-30 seconds of active recovery at 50-70% MAS, continuing on for 5-10 or more minutes.

For running training, implementing this method basically entails devising rectangular concentric grids of various dimensions that equal ~15-s at 100% MAS along the long side of the rectangle and 15-s at 70% MAS along the short side (see Figure 1). The fastest group are on the outside grid or running channel, with the slowest group along the inside grid. The coach can stand in the middle of the rectangle, but if two staff are available, one would monitor the finish point of each long side of the rectangle.

It can be seen from Figure 1 that a theoretical Group 1 runs 72 m in 15-s along the long side of the rectangle followed by 50 m along the short side and so forth. It takes 1 minute to complete one lap of the rectangular grid and this is completed without pause for 5-minutes initially and can be done for 2-4 sets with a 2-3 minute rest in between sets. The key point here is that each group has their grid based upon their own MAS capabilities ~ however, despite differences in MAS capabilities among large groups, each group should be at their respective corner of the rectangular grid each 15-s, which makes training compliance easy to monitor. The athletes are not allowed to speed up during the 70% sides to get a head-start on the harder sides – this just makes the grid an anaerobic threshold grid, something to avoid! This is enforced by making the athletes momentarily stop and hold the start position on the start of each long side of the grid.

When performing this drill, it is more practical to build up to 6, then 8-minutes and repeating for 2-4 sets (or build up to 10 minutes and performing 1-2 sets) rather than increasing the length of each 100% repetition to 30 s or more. It is difficult to do the running grids for 30s each side because you can physically run out of room to make a rectangle (eg. 30 s x 4.6 m/s means the long, 100% MAS side would have to be 138 m long, a distance which is hard to find on typical sporting fields).

Every 3-4 weeks it may be necessary to retest MAS or more simply to advance each group up to the next grid (which would be about 102-105% of their original or previous MAS). For example, the group that were running 63 m on their long 100% MAS side are sent up to the 66 m grid and so forth. This method is now used by many professional footballers in Australia with excellent results.

120% 15:15 Eurofit Method

This method was developed by French researchers and has been validated with professional soccer players during the pre-season (15), during the in-season (12), with younger school children (5) and teenagers (6). It is very simple to use. Again, in its simplest form, every athletes 100% MAS is determined and then increased by 20% (ie. 120% MAS). The athletes are lined up along a line and then run to the marker cone that represents their 120% MAS distance in 15 seconds. They rest there for 15 seconds and then run back to the start line. This process is repeated for 5-minutes initially, building up to 8- or 10-minutes, with only 1-2 sets being performed. Intensity can be increased up to 125 or 130% MAS after 3-4 weeks. Figure 2 provides a depiction of the simple set-up. Again, this is easily coached ~ all athletes must get to their cone on the 15 second mark, wait 15 seconds and on the return, they all hit the start line at the same time, despite different distances being covered.

Tabata Method

The original Tabata method is quite exhausting (at 170% VO2 max, % MAS unknown) and is typically only performed for one 4-minute set (14). As field athletes typically must compete for longer time durations, the Tabata protocol has been modified by coaches to be performed at an intensity of ~120% MAS. This allows the set duration to be increased up to 5-, 6- or even 8-minutes and be performed for 2-5 sets, allowing for more time to be spent above the critical 100% MAS intensity.

Figures 3 and 4 detail how this modified Tabata method can be implemented in a smaller area by implementing turns. In this example, the Tabata method is performed as 20 seconds at 120% MAS, done as 10 seconds out, 10 seconds to return, rest 10 seconds and repeat till 5- or more minutes are completed (Figure 3). The turn that occurs in the run makes this speed quite difficult to maintain and more sport specific for field sports. However it may be necessary to use a total distance that is 19-seconds at 120% MAS ~ reduce the distance by the equivalent of 1-s to allow for the deceleration and loss of running velocity involved in the turn. A further variation is to perform the 20-s drill as 5-s out and back, repeated (Figure 4). Turns are thought to increase the anaerobic energy contribution (10).

There may appear to be little difference between the Eurofit and Tabata methods, but the critical difference is the Eurofit is based upon a 1:1 (15-s:15-s) work ratio, whereas the Tabata method utilizes a 2:1 ratio (20s:10s). This apparently minor differential has a pronounced effect upon the accumulation of fatigue when multiple repetitions or sets are performed.

Unpredictable Tabata (or 2:1)

Another variation of the Tabata method is to maintain the 2:1 work/rest ratio and > 120 MAS but alter the length of the intervals to 8:4, 12:6, 16:8 etc.

One of the limitations of all the above conditioning methods is that there are predictable work periods. Athletes quickly adapt to some sort of pacing strategy or know when they are about to start their next effort.

With this second Tabata method the coach can set different coloured cones for each time/distance interval for each group. Upon the “Go” command, the athletes start their effort but not till about 2-seconds after the start are they given the command which will designate which cone they run to and return from. They do not know until that point will they be running to the cone designating 6s out and back, 8s out and back, 16s out and back and so on (see Figure 5). This strategy disrupts running rhythm and recovery strategies, entails reaction to situational commands and causes repeat high-intensity efforts to occur at less predictable times more than any of the other above high-intensity methods.

Periodization and progression of training across the Preparation Period

The training methods above have an inbuilt intensity progression as athletes work from < 100% MAS in LI, to 100% MAS in the Grids method to 120 and 130% MAS in the EuroFit and Tabata methods. The other variable for difficulty progression is the choice between the active recovery (at < 40% in LI, to 60-70% MAS in the Grids method) versus the passive rest inherent in the EuroFit and Tabata methods. Furthermore the Tabata method’s work:rest ratio of 2:1 may prove even more difficult as compared to the 1:1 EuroFit method. The second Tabata method with variable interval lengths may prove more even difficult for athletes but this may be due to reasons other than just physiological reasons. Introducing turns in the Tabata, or any method, will also cause an increase in difficulty as this increases the anaerobic contribution (10).

Training can be progressed via the systematic use of all of these different methods, starting with the 3-minute LI’s and reducing LI length to 60-s, then the 100%:70% grids method, moving to the EuroFit 120% MAS method and finishing with the Japanese Tabata methods within a training cycle. Each method can be implemented for 1-3 weeks before progressing to the next method or a weekly cycle can involve a number of methods (see Tables 1 and 2).

Within each 2-3 week mini-cycle, the typical volume progressions would also occur (5-minute sets building up to 8- or even 10-minute sets and/or 2 sets building up to 3 or 4 sets). Consequently when a progression to the new method occurs there is a marked decrease in volume, but an increase in intensity ~ this week serves as a “volume un-load” week (see weeks 4 & 7 in Table 2). Therefore as intensity initially increases with the introduction of the new method, volume is lowest, but builds up over time before implementing the next intensity progression, again with a lower volume.

Once an athlete has attained some training experience with these methods, weekly undulating periodization is also possible with one aerobic training day emphasizing increasing the time spent at ~100% MAS (and possibly also the time of each repetition spent at 100% MAS) via the grids method and the other training day spent emphasizing the time spent well above 100% MAS (ie. The Eurofit or Tabata methods) (See Table 2, Day 1 versus Day 3). This methodology is based around the Supramax methods DEVELOPING new aerobic power and improving the ability to repeat high-intensity efforts and the Maximal method, conditioning the body to SUSTAIN the current 100% MAS for longer periods. This within-week alternation of methods allows the athlete to toggle between milder active recovery (eg. 15 s @ 70% MAS or 90-s @ 40% MAS) and passive recovery (15-s rest).

An example of these progressions appropriate to the General Preparation phase is depicted in Table 2. If the GP phase is only 4-weeks long, then this might be modified such that LI, Grids, EuroFit and then Tabata methods are the predominant (but not only) drill for each week.

Integrating high-intensity aerobic training with sports training and small-sided games (SSG)

The limitation of the above methods is that there is still some ‘predictability” about them. Field sports often require intense efforts at unpredictable times and hence some researchers and coaches have advocated small sided games as a better alternative to traditional conditioning due to the “unpredictability” of games and the fact that games also develop sports skills and game sense. However the overload delivered by games by themselves is also unpredictable and depends upon the structure and rules of the games etc. I have data from that shows the athletes with the highest MAS covered the most meters in each SSG and had the most winning outcomes, so how would SSG improve those athletes with lower MAS scores?

My recommendation is that almost all athletes below the elite or professional level are better suited to using traditional conditioning methods as described above to develop greater MAS and fitness levels in the General Preparation phase, rather than relying on small sided games to develop aerobic fitness.

So what role do SSG play? For the elite performer, with GPS technology to monitor running workloads in real-time, plenty of assistant coaches watching, high motivation levels etc, SSG are great. But athletes below that elite level?

My experience has shown that conditioning-oriented SSG become more effective after the GP phase, once fitness levels have been established. Once a field sport athlete has attained an adequate MAS and is in the Specific Preparation phase or Competitive Periods of the sport season, then skill and tactical training must takes precedence. It is during the Specific Preparation phase that the alternating of 4-8 minute sets of the above conditioning drills with 3-8 mins of small-sided games is an effective conditioning/maintenance and sports skill development tool for field sport athletes.

As mentioned earlier typically skills are coached in relatively low stress situations (low heart rate, minimal fatigue, less than full speed or full-force opposition) which are fine for the initial skill development and tactical learning situations – the polarity of training readily suitable for GP training. But does this type of training enhance the skill or tactical sports performance of advanced athletes or mimic the game situations?

I find it akin to a fighter only hitting the heavy bag or the trainer’s pads and expecting to fight well in competition. Everyone looks good hitting the pads, but in real life competitive fighting situations, getting punched in the face alters everything, so sparring must be done in training! And must be done in a fatigued state on occasions.

So my recommendation is to utilize the above conditioning drills, conditioning-oriented SSG or game-scenario simulation SSG and lower intensity skills together in the SP phase and In-season periods. The authors’ experience is that the fatigue resulting from the performance of the above conditioning drills allows the head skill/sports coach to see fatigue related breakdowns in 1) individual skill technique, 2) decision-making or 3) inability to match the game speed, resulting in the effective dismantling of the teams’ defensive or offensive structure/patterns/formation the during ensuing skill- and small-sided games.

Typically these three types of “breakdown” occur in the most fatiguing parts of real competition games but are not so well illuminated to the athlete or coach during “normal” lower intensity skill or tactical training sessions which are practiced in less fatiguing or stressful situations. Thus the head skill/sports coach can develop and implement intense small-sided games that challenge or illustrate which of these types of breakdowns occur (and to which athletes) for different critical game scenario situations.

So the S & C coach pre-fatigues the athletes so the coach can implement game situation simulation drills or SSG’s to see if there are any of the three “break-downs” and to whom.

It has been the author’s experience that the following combination of a 6-minute supra-maximal 120% MAS drill (e.g. Tabta or EuroFit), followed by a 6-minute SSG and a 3-minute semi-passive recovery (eg. stationary passing and catching of balls) without rest is very challenging to the athlete’s fitness and individual skill levels. When this is again followed by another 5 to 8-minute conditioning set and another SSG not only is the athlete’s aerobic and anaerobic conditioning and skill levels challenged but it may also display the athlete’s ability to maintain appropriate decision making and team structure during the second small sided game. An example of the Specific Preparation phase integration of conditioning sets, SSG, skill and tactical training is displayed in Table 3. In this training session, the goal would be for 30% of the total distance covered (excluding warm-up) to be performed at a speed above 4 m/s.

General Preparation versus Specific Preparation and high-intensity conditioning

By analysing Tables 2, it can clearly seen that the early General Preparation phase has more time devoted to basic training of energy system fitness. In comparison, Table 3, which outlines a Specific Preparation phase training session has only 1 x 5-minute set and 1 x 7-minute set specifically devoted to the above conditioning drills out of a total of 90-minutes.

So the basic summary is, in the GP spend more time improving MAS and allied energy system fitness with the above mentioned drills while the skill and tactical training is done at low intensity to ensure good learning. As fitness improves across the weeks, the amount of time spent performing conditioning decreases but the intensity of the conditioning drills and the skill/tactical training increases. By the time of SP, only a short amount of time needs to be spent performing specific high-intensity drills and they should be integrated with SSG and skill/tactical training.

Accordingly, in the SP or In-season, high-intensity aerobic conditioning drills can be seen as part of an integrated and coherent sports performance enhancement program that aids in the development or display of skills under challenging game simulation situations.

Conclusions

Experienced field sport athletes gain little in terms of enhancing their aerobic power from LSD training such as road runs at < 80% MAS etc. Training at or above 100% MAS has been shown to be more effective. The methods presented can be implemented in a progressive manner across a General Preparation Period.

The LI’s and Grids maximal methods outlined are thought to best condition athletes to be able to sustain high-intensity aerobic power for longer periods, which can occur with many field sports. The two supra-maximal methods are believed to be best for developing new levels of high-intensity aerobic power or to be able to repeat their high-intensity efforts.

Once an athlete is in the Specific Preparation Phase or In-season Period, total training duration devoted to high-intensity conditioning can be quite short ~ (eg. 1-3 sets of 4-10-minutes duration) and combined and integrated with small-sided games or skill and tactical training. This integration of training is highly recommended for field sport athletes to develop skill and tactical nous under fatigue and stressful situations akin to the real competitive environment.

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…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Baker, D. Recent trends in high-intensity aerobic training for field sports. Professional Strength & Conditioning. 22 (Summer): 3-8. 2011.

2. Baker, D. Cross-training workout: using high-intensity energy system conditioning for injured athletes. Professional Strength & Conditioning. 27 (Winter): 4-8. 2012.

3. Baker D. Non-running, high-intensity energy-system conditioning cross-training workouts for injured athletes. Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning 21(4)5-13. 2013.

4. Baker, D. & N. Heaney. Some Normative Data for Maximal Aerobic Speed for Field Sport Athletes: A Brief Review. Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning (in review).

5. Baquet, G, Berthoin S, Gerbeaux M and Van Praagh E. High-intensity aerobic training during a 10-week one-hour physical education cycle: Effects on physical fitness of adolescents aged 11 to 16. International Journal of Sports Medicne. 22:295–300. 2001.

6. Berthoin S, Manteca F, Gerbeaux M and Lensel-Corbeil G. Effect of a 12-week training program on maximal aerobic speed (MAS) and running time to exhaustion at 100 percent of MAS for students aged 14 to 17 years. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness. 35:251–256. 1995.

7. Berthon, P., Fellmann, N. Bedu, M., Beaune, B., Dabonneville, M., Coudert , J., and A. Chamoux. A 5-min running field test as a measurement of maximal aerobic velocity. European journal of Applied Physiology. 75: 233–238. 1997.

8. Berthoin S, Gerbeaux, M, Geurruin F, Lensel-Corbeil G and Vandendorpe F. Estimation of maximal aerobic speed. Science & Sport 7(2), 85-91. 1992.

9. Billat, V and Koralsztein. JP. Significance of the velocity at O2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Medicine. 22:90–108. 1996.

10. Buchheit, M. The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test: Accuracy for individualizing interval training of young intermittent sport players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 22(2):365-374. 2008.

11. Castagna, C., Barbero Á. and J. Carlos. Physiological demands of an intermittent Futsal-oriented high-intensity test. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 24(9):2322-2329. 2010.

12. Dupont, G., K. Akakpo, and S. Berthoin. The effect of in-season, high-intensity interval training in soccer players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 18(3):584–589. 2004.

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14. Tabata I, Nishimura K, Kouzaki, M, Hirai Y, Ogita, F, Miyachi M and Yamamoto K. Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2 max. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 28:1327–1330. 1996.

15. Wong, P-L, Chaouachi, A, Chamari, K, Dellal, A, and Wisloff, U. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular strength and high-intensity interval training in professional soccer players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 24(3): 653-660. 2010.

Interested in new technology that pushes the envelope in strength, speed, and power training? Then this article is for you. It’s the story of how Malmö Sports Academy (MIA) in Sweden became one of the first users of the 1080 Quantum system. Today MIA uses the Quantum’s robotic resistance technology to train a group of 50 elite-level athletes across 17 different sports. Welcome to Sweden and the Malmö Sports Academy, the home of iconic trainer and coach Kenneth Riggberger and visionary general manager Jan-Olov Jakobsson.

In 2011, MIA and the then-startup company 1080 Motion agreed to deploy the first version of the Quantum system for comprehensive use. If you are unfamiliar with robotic resistance, Quantum technology requires some explanation. There are no weights, air cylinders, or other traditional hardware inside the unit. Instead, it has a powerful electric servo motor controlled by a computer. The result is a resistance training and testing device in which you control and manipulate resistance type, load, and movement speed to create training modalities not possible with other types of equipment.

A Variety of Uses

With the push of a button, for example, you can overload the eccentric phase of a repetition by up to 200% relative to the concentric load. You can do ballistic training at high speeds and loads for power maximization without dealing with a real mass that jolts joints and soft tissue on the rebound. The Quantum can be set up as an isotonic (constant load no matter the speed) resistance device free from inertia when rehabilitating athletes or if you’re into isotonic training at high speeds. Or you can use it in isokinetic (constant and typically low speed no matter the force) mode for max force development and hypertrophy. The system can even provide useful vibration for working on injured muscles and tendons.

The Quantum’s “ballistic” mode is unique. Used for training power and explosiveness, it is particularly valuable for MIA’s elite athletes. The great difference with other resistance technology is how this feature deals with inertia in the various phases of a repetition. Using the ballistic setting, the system behaves just like a regular mass as long as you are increasing movement speed in a repetition. This means the athlete must overcome the natural counterforce of inertia that the body must be proficient at handling when running, jumping, swinging a bat, or throwing a football.

However, there’s a major difference when the movement speed is leveling out or decreasing in that same repetition. The Quantum system takes away the “free ride” the athlete would normally get when working concentrically with a regular mass that has built up speed and momentum. As a result, the athlete has full contact with the resistance during the entire range of movement, independent of acceleration and deceleration.

If we talk about training as inducing neuromuscular stress, this is stress maximization causing the athlete to produce about 30% more average power compared to a repetition using the same load but with a normal weight. This increased intensity is fundamentally different from any other resistance training whether with a normal mass, air-powered isotonic system, bungee cord, or flywheel. Combine this with eccentric overload and you’ll realize this is new and exciting territory for strength and conditioning.

The Quantum system accurately measures how much force, power, and speed is created in every repetition with separate readings of the concentric and eccentric phases of the movement. With all things combined, it’s a unique training tool that provides real-time performance data.

Talking with Riggberger

The coach is at home on a Sunday afternoon when I interview him. I want to learn about his experiences in working with some of Sweden’s best athletes.

He takes me to the early months of 2011 when he experimented with the Quantum to understand how best to use it. At that time, only a few had been built and—unlike today—there was no broad knowledge base to lean on. Riggberger, like any strength coach working with elite athletes, has a tremendous responsibility to give them the best physical foundation to succeed in competition.

Being confronted with a new and potentially extreme training tool can present a dilemma. Even if you logically understand the benefits of a new training method, the last thing you want is to compromise your athletes’ next season or increase their risk of injury. Playing safe is natural, but at the same time, everything we do in elite sports is keyed to maximize the chance of winning.

Riggberger explains that the first time he tested the Quantum it took 3 minutes to realize its potential, but he needed several months of incremental learning to implement it since there was no experience with the system at the time. He adds, “We were the early explorers, but now there are more users like us. Research institutions have also understood this is something unique and are studying on the effects of this type of training.”

He also points out that the system needs to be applied appropriately for different levels of athletes. Since the Quantum is capable of making training more extreme than regular weight training (or less if the task is to rehabilitate), you have to know the limits of application in relation to individual athletes. There’s a huge difference between a youth athlete in early puberty and a D1 football player or sprinter competing internationally. The Quantum is like driving a sports car: Having 600 horsepower under the hood doesn’t mean you can go full throttle at all times. But when the road is wide and straight—pedal to the metal!

Riggberger states, “The Quantum is not to be thought of like traditional weight training. It’s easy to make that assumption when you use it for squats and presses because it looks the same to the eye. But other than the bar itself it has nothing to do with a regular weight that’s always influenced by the same rate of gravity no matter what you do. Just like any advanced form of training like plyometric jumps, you use it with great care and precision depending on the capability of the athlete.”

Getting Results

With the background of how Riggberger approached his new tool, I was eager to get to the heart of the story: what kinds of results has the Quantum delivered?

Like most coaches, Riggberger works with many athletes and has limited time for experimentation and documenting results. But he decided to systematically use the system for a specific purpose and document the results into published case studies with three elite athletes (a hurdler, a long jumper, and a discus thrower). Riggberger can discuss the first two while the third is still a work in progress. For the more scientifically minded reader, these and other studies and additional facts are published on 1080 Motion’s website.

Let’s look at the 110m hurdler (13.47). Riggberger wanted to explore his belief that the Quantum system can be effective for brief but high-intensity strength training during the competitive season. Extensive weight-based training within the season increases the injury risk and is a challenge to balance with other training and competition cycles. Riggberger hoped the Quantum system would reduce the athlete’s total training volume and injury risk while maintaining leg power performance.

The study lasted nine weeks, during which the only form of weight training was 6 sessions with single-leg squats, 2 sets of 5 reps on each leg. That’s an average of just one session per 10.5 days! The protocol was a concentric load of 119 kg/262 lbs with no speed limitation and 139 kg/306 lbs in the eccentric phase at 4 m/s speed. That implies a 17% eccentric overload and an exaggerated eccentric speed, causing the quad musculature to stretch more quickly compared to a regular barbell squat.

1080 Quantum provides precise control of resistance type, load, and movement speed. Share on X

Riggberger’s theory is that the ability to assist with speed in the eccentric phase creates a greater loading in the stretch-shortening cycle, thereby helping to maximize fast-twitch fiber activation. The 17% overloaded eccentric load contributes to this process. Since this is a very intense way of doing single-leg squat the athlete needed a 10-minute rest between sets. Riggberger kept track of the total training time and concluded that for each session the athlete only worked under tension for 8 seconds concentrically and 6 seconds eccentrically.

In total over the 9 weeks, the combined time under tension—concentrically and eccentrically—was no more than 1 minute and 26 seconds. Measuring the change in power with both the Quantum’s internal data and a separate bar speed encoder for verification, Riggberger concluded that concentric power had increased by 32% on the left leg and 35% on the right, with eccentric power increasing by 24% and 10% respectively. Peak velocity went up 29% and 11% percent while time-to-peak velocity improved by 12% and 19%. Riggberger also tested the athlete in four different jump tests and documented an across-the-board improvement.

Says Riggberger,“I was quite surprised to see this kind of improvement from such limited and infrequent training, especially in an athlete that was at a very high-performance level to start with. My goal was to be able to maintain power performance, but instead I got a major improvement”.

Video 1. High-intensity single leg squats. Isokinetic concentric phase and 17% eccentric overload.

Long Jumper

Riggberger’s second case involved a long jumper with a personal best of 8.25 meters (27.07 feet). The aim of the study was similar to the first case: verifying the effect of a short-duration/high-load strength program. Here the single-leg squat study lasted 3 weeks, with two sessions per week. The concentric load was 121 kg/267 lbs and the eccentric 141 kg/311 lbs. The results were similar to the hurdler: concentric power increased by 16% on the left leg and 12% on the right while time-to-peak-velocity improved by 38% on both legs.

Riggbergersaid, “Overall the results show greater improvements on the left leg. Since this is a right-leg long jumper, the right leg is naturally more developed so it’s not surprising to see greater improvements on the left where the relative improvement potential should be greater. It was still a big deal for me to be able to see a 12% power increase on the leg that hits the plank. It tells me we took a world-class athlete a good step further on his performance curve.”

I asked Riggberger to sum up his experience of implementing the Quantum system at MIA. “I’m confident to say at this time that there is nothing to compare with if you look at how quickly we get results from this system,” he noted. “I have developed a four-stage training model that we use broadly. It essentially starts with conditioning the athlete to greater intensity but at highly controlled movement speeds. From there, training progresses to greater intensity using a combination of isokinetic loads and high speeds. All the time we overload the eccentric phase to maximize the athlete’s ability to absorb the energy needed to explode concentrically.

“With this model, we get great and predictable results while reducing the risk for training injuries. Also, when I train sprinters and other sports where only one leg at a time is used, I exclusively do single leg strength training. I have measured this many times and can only conclude that two-legged training does not transfer optimally into single-leg performance. It’s a great tool for performing the more advanced single-leg power training using high loads and exaggerated movement speeds.”

Additional Perspective

After wrapping up with Riggberger, I called his boss, MIA General Manager Jan-Olov Jacobsson to get some perspective. I immediately sensed he is a highly energetic and forward-looking man who is very proud of his team. He explains how MIA is a major force for elite sports development in Sweden.

Commenting on the use of the Quantum, he explains, “We develop top talent, and we need state-of-the art-facilities and equipment to attract the very best to come here. The Quantum is an important part of the service we provide these athletes. This year we have also started to use the new 1080 Sprint system that uses the same technology but for up to 90-meter sprints.

“Sometimes new athletes and coaches are skeptical to new tools and methods, but once they start using the system, they tell us how the training makes them feel more explosive. It’s hard to put your finger on it, but it does something different that people like. Thanks to Kenneth’s hard work we have the numbers to prove that the system is superior at quickly building strength and explosiveness.”

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF