By Bill Miller and Barrett Snyder
In the realm of rigorous exercise and performance training, you’ve likely encountered the phrase, “Pain is weakness leaving the body.” This mantra, along with various other quotes, encapsulates the notion of pushing through discomfort and exhaustion to achieve fitness goals. It’s the relentless pursuit of things like endless drop sets, subjecting yourself to grueling lower-body training sessions that rival marathons, or enduring hours upon hours of stadium stairs amidst stifling humidity, all to prove your unwavering determination and commitment to the “grind.”
We’ve all experienced these moments. Contemplating further, however, we must question the true efficacy of these methods for athletes over the long haul—particularly athletes who participate in overhead sports that require a formidable display of power and explosiveness, as well as rapid concentric and eccentric movements.
Crafting a truly effective strength and conditioning program is often predicated on striking a critical balance between stimulating repetitions and managing muscle fatigue and damage. The key question arises: How can coaches skillfully navigate this delicate tightrope, maximizing athletes’ time in the weight room to ensure that muscle stimulation and progressive overload continue while minimizing muscle damage and fatigue throughout the process?
In this installment, part one of a two-part series, we will unveil essential training considerations coaches should explore before hastily jotting down exercises, sets, and rep schemes on an athlete’s program sheet. We begin by exploring factors such as fiber type proportion, level of voluntary activation, and working sarcomere length and their impact on muscle damage and, consequently, training frequency. In addition, we will unravel the enigma of calcium ion-related fatigue and its detrimental effects on athletic performance progression. Our goal during this two-part series is to empower coaches with invaluable insights to craft training programs that maximize results.
Training Considerations
When developing your program, consider the answers to these two important questions:
1. How susceptible is each specific muscle to damage during the course of an overhead athlete’s workout routine?
This will prove to be consequential because the total amount of muscle damage experienced (specific to each muscle) during a training session will determine the amount of time required for adequate recovery. To decipher this answer, we can use three key metrics initially proposed by infographics architect Chris Beardsley:
- Fiber type proportion
- Level of voluntary activation
- Working sarcomere lengths
A detailed analysis of these metrics reveals that not all muscles possess the same vulnerability to muscle damage. This directly affects our programming for overhead athletes, especially during a competitive season in which they must maintain a state of freshness to perform at their peak on the field.
2. How much calcium ion-related fatigue does our program induce?
Calcium ion-related fatigue is essential to measure and understand because it significantly affects muscle function and performance. During muscle contraction, calcium ions are released from storage sites within muscle cells, initiating the process that allows muscles to contract and generate force. However, as muscles repeatedly contract and relax, the accumulation of calcium ions can lead to fatigue.
Calcium ion-related fatigue is essential to measure and understand because it significantly affects muscle function and performance, says @billmills. Share on XKey Metrics That Help Determine Muscle Damage
As stated above, these three metrics show how muscles differ in their vulnerability and resiliency to muscle damage. Knowing these differences can help you with the optimal programming of your training sessions.
1. Fiber Type Proportion
As we recall from academia or certification materials, muscles with a higher proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers exhibit lower oxidative capacity and tend to undergo a more pronounced inflammatory response when subjected to various training modalities. Consequently, our fast-twitch muscle fibers are more susceptible to heightened muscle damage, leading to increased levels of fatigue.
On the other hand, muscles characterized by a higher proportion of slow-twitch fibers, known for their oxidative nature, have demonstrated greater resistance to muscle damage resulting from repetitive contractions. This resilience is likely attributed to their elevated mitochondrial content. In practical terms, this information suggests that we can program a greater number of stimulating repetitions for these muscle groups during training sessions, leveraging their slow-twitch tendencies and enhancing the potential for recoverability.
Examples:
The biceps and triceps brachii have both been shown to require greater amounts of rest between workouts than other muscles in the body because of greater muscle damage susceptibility. This conclusion was likely reached because these muscle groups are two of the most fast twitch in the body. In addition, the pectoralis contains a greater percentage of fast-twitch fibers, making it more susceptible to muscle damage. Conversely, on the other side of the spectrum, we have slow-twitch muscles, a prime example of which is the quadriceps, which can be trained more frequently and does not require as much time to recover.
Incorporating biceps, triceps, and pectoral movements into the training programs of overhead athletes can yield significant benefits from a performance and health standpoint, says @billmills. Share on XIncorporating biceps, triceps, and pectoral movements into the training programs of overhead athletes can yield significant benefits from a performance and health standpoint. The pectoral muscle plays a key role during the acceleration phase of the throwing motion. In contrast, the triceps play a crucial role in rapid force production and joint stability around the arm. In addition, the biceps and brachialis are essential during the deceleration phase of the throwing motion, decelerating the extending elbow and pronating forearm. As such, you can use the exercises below to improve force production and deceleration during the throwing motion. Just be mindful that these muscle groups are more susceptible to increased muscle damage and fatigue due to their higher concentration of type-II fast-twitch muscle fibers.
- Medicine ball chest pass
- Dumbbell Zottman curl
- Overhead triceps pull-apart
- Triceps push-downs
- Band-assisted explosive push-up
- One-arm explosive landmine press
- Dumbbell hammer curl
Videos 1&2. Medicine Ball Chest Pass and Overhead Triceps Pull-Apart.
2. Voluntary Activation
The concept of voluntary activation pertains to the regulation of the number of high-threshold motor units that are engaged during each contraction. Although it would be inaccurate to make a sweeping generalization that all fast-twitch muscles consistently exhibit high activation levels, it is generally observed to be the case (except for hamstrings, which we will discuss in the following paragraph). On a similar note, like fast-twitch muscles, muscles with a high degree of voluntary activation are more susceptible to damage than those with slower activation rates.
Examples:
The biceps brachii and the triceps brachii have previously demonstrated 94%–99% levels of voluntary activation and 94%–96% levels of voluntary activation during maximal isometric contractions, respectively. Compare this to the oxidative quadriceps, which have expressed deficiencies of 15%–20% beneath the anticipated force production amid voluntary contractions, according to Beardsley.
Like fast-twitch muscles, muscles with a high degree of voluntary activation are more susceptible to damage than those with slower activation rates, says @billmills. Share on XRegarding the hamstrings, it is noteworthy that they experience a high level of voluntary activation even though various studies have not consistently classified them as predominantly fast-twitch muscles. However, apart from the hamstrings, lower-body muscles have generally been observed to exhibit reduced levels of voluntary activation compared to their upper-body counterparts.
As previously mentioned, biceps and triceps movements can offer valuable benefits in an overhead athlete’s workout routine, aiding in acceleration and deceleration capabilities during the throwing motion. In addition to the exercises listed above, we can incorporate isometric movements to aid in the performance enhancement of these muscles. Further, given the hamstrings’ essential role in the sprinting motion, we should look to incorporate ways to isolate the hamstrings during training bouts to enhance their capabilities.
However, as we expressed a word of caution in the former section, it is essential to exercise prudence in managing the training volume for these muscle groups, considering their elevated levels of voluntary activation.
We can look to isolate the bicep, triceps, and hamstrings by incorporating the following:
- Iso bicep curl
- Iso triceps push-down
- Straight leg deadlift
- Seated hamstring curl
- Prone hamstring curl
- Nordic hamstring curl
Videos 3 & 4. Iso Triceps Push-Down and Straight Leg Deadlift.
3. Working Sarcomere Lengths
These are described as follows: “The lengths of the sarcomeres inside a muscle over its joint angle range of motion. It allows us to see if the muscle can experience (1) active insufficiency (and so will be trained poorly by exercises involving peak forces at very short muscle lengths) and (2) stretch-mediated hypertrophy (and so will be trained more effectively by exercises involving peak forces at very long muscle lengths).”
While it is acceptable and often necessary for a coach to program longer-length exercises (stretched positions), we are aware that muscle damage, and thereby calcium ion-related fatigue, becomes much more prevalent as a consequence of training at longer lengths and stretched positions. As coaches, it is crucial to be mindful of this aspect, especially when designing training programs during the in-season period, when athletes will be participating in multiple field competitions throughout the week.
Muscle damage, and thereby calcium ion-related fatigue, becomes much more prevalent as a consequence of training at longer lengths and stretched positions, says @billmills. Share on XExamples:
Stretched position exercises can be defined as movements where the most demanding phase occurs at the lower end of the range of motion. These types of exercises include overhead pull-downs, chest presses, and various squat variations.
- Rear foot elevated split squat
- Reverse lunge
- Walking lunge
- Single-arm pull-down
- DB chest press
- Overhead lat pull-down
- Hack squat
Videos 5&6. Reverse Lunge and Single-Arm Pull-Down.
Calcium Ion-Related Fatigue
The onset of fatigue related to calcium ions happens when there is a rise in the concentration of calcium ions within the cytoplasm following prolonged and failure-driven training sessions, inadequate rest periods between sets, and long, drawn-out sets with excessive repetitions. This phenomenon has a significant risk of hindering the progress of our athletes during the course of their training sessions and impeding their future advancements. It is crucial to note that the more fatigue our athletes accumulate, the longer the recovery time required before noticeable enhancements in performance can be observed.
In terms of programming application, the main question remains: How can we provide our athletes with enough stimulus to enhance performance without causing excessive calcium ion-related fatigue? Below are several examples that coaches can employ to accomplish this objective.
Concentric-Only Contractions
While concentric-only training will cause muscle damage (there is still a contraction), the damage remains minimal compared to exercises encompassing an eccentric component.
Examples:
- Squat from pins
- Concentric DB row
- Concentric trap bar deadlift
- TRX sled row
- Floor press
- Pin press
Videos 7&8. Concentric Trap Bar Deadlift and TRX Sled Row.
It is important to acknowledge that eccentric movements do play a crucial role in athlete training, as they contribute to increasing muscle fascicle lengths, reduce the risk of muscle strain injuries, and aid in deceleration capabilities. However, it is equally essential to recognize that these eccentric exercises tend to induce greater fatigue. Therefore, we highly encourage careful programming of eccentrics to allow the athlete ample time to recover, especially during the competitive season.
Eccentric overload training modalities can be incorporated into an overhead athlete’s program by performing the following movements:
- Eccentric overload rotator cuff movement
- Eccentric overload one-arm row
- Eccentric overload single-leg split squat
Videos 9&10. Eccentric Overload Rotator Cuff and Eccentric Overload One-Arm Row.
Low Rep Sets with Heavy Weight
Coaches can increase the load the athlete is using, thereby minimizing the repetitions performed during a given set. A set of 5–8 repetitions with a moderate to heavy load will ensure the athlete is provided with the necessary stimulus to forge adaptations while curbing calcium ion-related fatigue for the duration of the training session.
For advanced athletes who possess knowledge of their one-repetition maximum capabilities, a prudent approach involves instructing them to maintain 1–2 reps in reserve during the completion of each movement. Although training closer to failure facilitates enhanced activation of fast-twitch muscle fibers, which is particularly beneficial for sports demanding speed and power, it is essential to recognize that these very fibers are more susceptible to muscle damage and fatigue caused by calcium ion accumulation, owing to their lower mitochondrial density. By adopting a training strategy that incorporates relatively heavy loads while leaving a few reps in reserve, we can effectively ensure that the athlete receives sufficient training stimulus while mitigating the risk of excessive fatigue.
It is essential to recognize that fast-twitch fibers are more susceptible to muscle damage and fatigue caused by calcium ion accumulation, owing to their lower mitochondrial density, says @billmills. Share on XBelow is a chart based on the research and information laid out above. It details each muscle group, the prevailing fiber type, and recommendations for athletes.
In the second part of this discussion, we will delve into the influence of central nervous fatigue (CNS) on an athlete’s performance and explore successful strategies to alleviate its effects. Additionally, we will present sample training programs featuring exercise variations carefully selected to foster consistent progress for overhead athletes, both in their on-field endeavors and within the weight room.
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