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Training the phosphagen system via sprinting was the focus of my article on Field and Court Sport Training from a Track Coach’s Perspective: The Phosphagen System. I spend a lot of time discussing the benefits of sprinting because one of the few absolutes I believe when training athletes is that: In land-based sports which involve A to B movement, if training at maximum speed is not addressed, there is a gaping hole in the training program. The degree to which athletes sprint should be based on the demands of the sport (and more specifically, the demands of the position/event, if applicable). For example, a wide receiver in football should sprint more than an interior lineman, but the bottom line is that both players should be exposed to it.

“The truth is most team sport coaches have no idea how to develop speed, so they obsess over playbooks and schemes to compensate.” ¹

In reversing this situation, if I coached badminton (a sport I’ve only played recreationally), I would initially focus on coaching what I am comfortable with: developing speed, strength, power, and agility. As the years progressed, I would become more familiar with the technical and tactical requirements of the sport and would blend them into my coaching.

I wonder if field/court (FC) coaches invest enough time into learning what it takes to develop speed. I have written in the past that an athlete with a low training age can undergo just about any type of training and improvements in speed will occur, but just because improvements occur does not mean the training is optimal. The choice to implement true maximum speed sessions is a start; the ability to conduct those sessions in the most effective manner possible is a never-ending quest.

Since the benefits of maximum speed training can be best realized through true maximum efforts, it is important for the athlete to feel great heading into the session. Therefore, I strongly suggest setting up training around maximum speed/effort days. Although there are always outside variables to take into account, a coach can at least set up days in which the athlete should be fresh.

“Speed development must be set up before you begin any type of endurance training. Speed is 25 times more difficult than endurance to develop.” ²

If speed is 25 times more difficult to develop, coaches should make all efforts to ensure that they conduct maximum speed/effort sessions at the highest quality possible. Once these days become the centerpiece of the training structure, everything else falls into place. This takes us to addressing the glycolytic and aerobic energy systems.

A New Perspective on the Glycolytic System

Training the glycolytic system asks the athlete to perform max effort work bouts with incomplete rest. These bouts are often done until failure (when the athlete reaches a tolerance limit). Workouts such as these have value, but only if used appropriately. If I was an athletic director, the following would be grounds for dismissal:

• Athletes completing intense glycolytic workouts twice in a day. This occurs often in the early season of many FC sports during two-a-days.
• Athletes completing intense glycolytic workouts on back-to-back days. This is common between FC sport competitions.
• Athletes completing a maximum speed workout the day after an intense glycolytic workout. How can an athlete attain their true max speed if their bodies are fried from the previous day? I do not see this occurring often because those who properly use maximum speed sessions know this would be far from ideal.

In order for intense glycolytic training to have value, the body needs to be given a chance to rest so it can grow. In the book, Peak Performance, a key concept is the equation: Stress + Rest = Growth.³ Much like American society as a whole, many coaches are phenomenal at piling on stress, but fail to give adequate rest, which inhibits the ability to grow. Coaches should give athletes at least 48 hours between intense glycolytic workouts where the recovery is complete rest (a day off) or light aerobic activity. For FC sports, a general guideline is to train the glycolytic system once or twice per week. Competitions count towards the total.

Glycolytic sessions give coaches a chance to be creative. As a track and field coach, I implement general technical and event specific work that eventually blends into the intense glycolytic workout. The possibilities are endless. From an FC sport perspective, I would encourage a variety of activities such as the circuit below.

For many FC coaches, training the glycolytic system is like what Baby B­­ear’s things are to Goldilocks—just right. From their perspective, training the phosphagen system via sprinting does not make an athlete tired, so it has no value because FC athletes are tired during competition. On the other end, training the aerobic system is not intense enough, so it does not transfer to gameplay where intensity is higher. Much of this is dogmatic in nature: coaches are doing what was done to them because it is all they know. However, living in the middle is not ideal in this case.

“If this (glycolytic) is the only method of training, the athlete will have a disproportional glycolytic energy system compared to his oxidative (aerobic) and ATP/Cr-P (phosphagen) energy systems and optimal performance will not be possible.” ⁴

Optimization should always be the target, and for this to happen, there needs to be balance among the three energy systems. With this being said, the balance is different for different FC sports. Due to the play length and start/stop nature of football, the glycolytic system is not required as much as it is in soccer or basketball (and its amount of use even in these sports is lower than most people think).

The Glycolytic System and ‘The Grind’

Coaches tend to view glycolytic workouts as the most challenging, and for good reason. There is no doubt extreme discomfort happens when acidosis occurs during intense exercise and immediately thereafter. Due to this extreme response, many coaches associate it with putting in quality work, and feel the need to achieve acidosis more than is necessary. This leads them to think they are outworking their opponents, and the badge they give themselves helps create a culture that embraces “the grind.”

When I hear the term “grind” when discussing training, I cringe. I understand it refers to training hard, but in my eyes, it casts a negative light on the training environment I want my athletes to experience. If an athlete is “grinding” in a training session, he or she is in a survival mindset. This means the focus becomes how to get through the workout, not how to have the best workout possible.

Coaches should do everything in their power to ensure an athlete’s mindset prior to a workout is positive, especially on days that pose a significant challenge. I cannot overstate the importance of the words and actions of a coach prior to these sessions. The athlete’s pre-workout perspective can determine whether the workout will be successful. Which statement would you rather have your athlete say?

“I am going to dominate this difficult workout.”

“I am going to grind through this difficult workout.”

Or maybe a better question is, do you prefer your athletes in survival mode or performance mode?

Being in a perpetual “grinding” training environment is like being the parent of a newborn. This often represents an extended period of an inconsistent sleep-wake cycle. The lower volume and broken nature of sleep leads to greater stress. Couple that with having to try to soothe a baby for an extended time multiple times per day/night, and you have a person who is in survival mode.

As that time progresses, it becomes the person’s new normal. He or she learns how to operate at a submaximal level. Then, a crazy thing happens. The infant (and consequently, the parent) starts to sleep through the night. Stress levels begin to decline. The parent begins to feel great again and wonders how the heck he or she operated during the previous six months.

Athletes who are always in the grind consistently operate at a level below their capabilities. If winning games is the primary objective in FC sports, I would do everything in my power to ensure athletes feel optimal heading into competition. When athletes come out of a grinding atmosphere and take part in a program that manages training stress effectively, they tend to flourish. They also learn that feeling awful after every workout is not necessary for growth to occur.

Grinders and Volume

Grinders also tend to obsess about volume. I have had numerous conversations with FC sport coaches where I have outlined ways to improve maximum speed. I advise them to do the following on a maximum speed/effort day:

• Get the athletes ready to operate at maximum intensity.
• Have them sprint 40 meters, three to five times, with full recovery between reps.
• Send them home or do similar plyometric and weight room activities (high intensity, low volume, full recovery between work bouts).

When I ask them how the workout went the next day, they typically say, “It was great, we did it all, and then we finished the workout with suicides to get some work in.” My head nearly explodes each time I hear this. Volume IS NOT the only way to “get work in.” Novice coaches think in terms of volume only, while skilled coaches manage volume, intensity, and density to maximize adaptation.

Glycolysis and Lactate

Before moving on to the aerobic system, I will cover one other consideration regarding the glycolytic system. A product of glycolysis is lactate. Lactate has numerous roles in the body, one of which is as an anabolic agent.^5,6 This concept was addressed on the Just Fly Performance Podcast #14:

“I am always looking for opportunities to subject my athletes to lactate in mild to moderate doses. In an acceleration development workout, if you hit the recoveries right, you’re getting speed and power development and restoration, all in one nice, tight package. It’s like your birthday; it’s all there for you.” ⁷

I love this quote because it is a great reminder that, even though a particular workout may focus on addressing a particular energy system, a coordinated effort between the three exists at all times. Acceleration development workouts zero in on the phosphagen system, but glycolysis still occurs, and athletes can reap the restorative rewards of lactate in a well-constructed session. This can also be done in the weight room or on the field/court by managing work/rest ratios. The key is for lactate accumulation to not impact the power output. Here are some options:

• Acceleration development usually consists of maximum effort for 30 meters, or four seconds or less (coaches can extend the time slightly if athletes use weighted push/pulls). In the previous article, I stated one minute of recovery should be used for every 10 meters when the goal is attaining maximum speed (usually sprints longer than 30 meters). In acceleration work, however, this could be cut to 30-45 seconds per 10 meters to accumulate lactate. Coaches can get close to locking in an appropriate rest interval with the use of an electronic timing system such as Freelap. If the time rises higher than 5% of that day’s best time, power outputs could be declining and rest intervals should be extended (or the workout should be stopped).
• In the weight room, coaches could extend rep ranges to get a slight dip into the glycolytic zone (work set length of approximately 7-15 seconds). Putting a group of three in a rack generally times the rest interval perfectly.⁷
• Bodyweight/medicine ball circuits. The work/rest ratio would depend on the exercises.
• Coaches can also cover this on the field or court by addressing game tactics. Small-sided games are a great option. Again, work/rest ratio would be at the coach’s discretion based on the nature of the small-sided game.

It is important that coaches do not take this section out of context. Just because there are anabolic effects of lactate, it does not mean the coach should blast their athletes with intense glycolytic work every day to get a higher anabolic effect. Too much glycolytic work can impair nervous system function, which decreases power output.⁷ This puts the athlete in a sub-optimal state.

In summary, intense glycolytic workouts (competitions included) should rarely exceed two times per week. Coaches can look for opportunities to create mild to moderate lactate during workouts where the focus is the phosphagen or aerobic system.

The Aerobic System and Repeat Sprint Ability (RSA)

Field and court sports tax athlete’s RSA much more than track and field does. The overall intent of training for FC sports should be to get athletes to produce the highest number of maximum efforts possible. Maximum effort is a tricky phrase. When used, I mean the athlete is operating at or near 100% of their capability. No matter at what level of fatigue an athlete resides, they can always give a maximum effort. I prefer to have athletes who can give a maximum effort that is as close to what they are capable of as often as possible.

What gets overlooked with RSA is its large dependence on the efficiency of the athlete’s aerobic system. Aerobic training often gets a bad rap. People my age often associate it with VHS tapes of Jane Fonda and Richard Simmons taking viewers through some killer cardio. There is obviously not much of a connection between this and FC sports. Fortunately, you can address the aerobic qualities needed for FC sports in a short training block and fluorescent spandex suits are not a requirement. The following information showcases the importance of the aerobic system and gives some methodology of how to improve it.

An example of twins who had the following resting heart rates (RHR), lactate thresholds (LT), and functional reserve ranges (FRR) is shown below.⁸ All are measured in beats per minute (bpm). FRR is found by subtracting RHR and LT. 

FRR can be increased by lowering RHR or increasing LT. Both can be done by training the aerobic system. All systems (even the phosphagen) recover faster in an athlete with a better aerobic system.⁸

A sink analogy can explain this. As the athlete performs physical activity, the “sink” fills up with metabolites. The aerobic system represents the drain of the sink. The bigger the drain, the better the athlete will be able to deal with, and recover from, an activity’s stress.⁴

Many people associate aerobic training with long slow distance running. Although it is an option, it is certainly not ideal for athletes involved in power sports. Here is a series of online presentations that give specifics of training the aerobic system. Within these, there are five different workouts. Parameters addressed include keeping heart rate between 110 bpm and 170 bpm (below LT), and training the system in two-week blocks (which is ideal for pre-season or early season focus).⁸ If a coach notices aerobic qualities diminishing over the course of a season, he or she can address them again in training.

Questions to Guide Weekly Design

FC coaches committed to their craft are meticulous planners. Offensive/defensive scripts and game situations are constructed during practice to give athletes a preview of what they may face during competition. Track coaches are also very detailed in their practice design. Many create elaborate periodization templates that outline the entire season.

I find these templates to be helpful reminders of what the focus should be during the season, but I also have learned that coaching what is in front of me reigns supreme in program design. This is the reason I wait until the end of the week to plan the next week’s workouts. Below is a list of questions I work through that allow me to build the best possible training scenario each week.

• What are the goals/themes for the next day(s), week(s), month(s)?
• How demanding was the previous day(s)/week(s)?
• How have the athletes responded to the previous training?
• How do I expect athletes to feel coming into the week?
• Are there competitions during the week?
  • What are the expected demands for each athlete in the competition(s)?
  • How will the training differ for athletes with different demands in competition?
• Is the weather conducive to the type of training desired?
• What facilities are available?
• Are there any notable outside stressors present (school, social) and, if so, what adjustments should be made?
• If an athlete cannot complete the desired workout, what contingencies can still address the desired training effect?

Final Remarks

I tailored the content covered in this article towards the design of FC sport training when viewed through a track coach’s lens. Training structures and methods specific to the body’s energy systems dominated the information, and I included both items to incorporate and to avoid.

My hope is that FC coaches will evaluate their current programming and see if there are areas they can tweak. From there, they can decide how best to address this information based on their current practice/conditioning structure, as well as the physical demands and skill required for athletes to be successful in their sport.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Thomas, Latif. (via @latif_thomas). “The truth is most team sport coaches have no idea how to develop speed, so they obsess over playbooks and schemes to compensate.” 10:19 a.m. October 26, 2017.
2. Veney, Tony. “Top 6 Hurdle Training Parameters.” Complete Track and Field. July 30, 2013.
3. Stulberg, Brad and Steve Magness. Peak Performance. New York: Rodale, 2017. 27.
4. Van Dyke, Matt and Cal Dietz. Triphasic Lacrosse Training Manual. Denver: Van Dyke Strength LLC. 2016. 49-60.
5. Nalbandian, Minas and Masaki, Takeda M. “Lactate as a Signaling Molecule that Regulates Exercise-Induced Adaptations.” Biology. 2016; 5(4): 38.
6. Godfrey, R.J., Madgwick, Z., and Whyte, G.P. “The Exercise-induced Growth Hormone Response in Athletes.” Sports Med.2003; 33(8): 599-613
7. Schexnayder, Boo. “Just Fly Performance Podcast Episode #14: Boo Schexnayder.” Just Fly Sports, September 7, 2016.
8. Dietz, Cal. “Triphasic Training System Aerobic Concepts Part 1.” Online PowerPoint presentation. June 25, 2017.

After having the same repetitive conversations on the reason I don’t use certain exercises and techniques, I felt obligated to voice an opinion with this flywheel article. It took me years to migrate from simple VersaPulley exercises in a warm-up to something more sophisticated, and I know detailing the journey can help new users of flywheel machines.

As stated in the medicine ball article on SimpliFaster, it’s better to cut out the fluff exercises and use only what is valuable and effective. Although you may rarely use an exercise, if it has a purpose you should still place it in the toolbox just like any other exercise, but in the bottom drawer. I list my favorite exercises here and explain why I include them, and also how to get more out of each rep. I also include not just the general techniques, but the specific nuances that are different than their barbell or dumbbell counterparts.

How I Chose the Exercise List

My decisions were not made in a vacuum, but based on the best solutions for a holistic program for athletes, so don’t skip to the exercise list right away. Because I also want to help the majority of programs, I didn’t include two key exercise groups: upper body and torso exercises. I will write something on conic options down the road, but most of the popular benefits in eccentric or isoinertial training are with machines. SimpliFaster reviewed conic machines in the Buyer’s Guide on Flywheels, so I geared this article towards squatting platforms only. Upper body training is mainly arm flexion and extension movements or push-ups—things I think are nice to have but not essential.

Finally, the list of exercises is not just about the motion, but also the performance of the exercises. I have seen some isometric variants for potentiation or similar purposes, but if you buy a flywheel, use it for its main purpose: eccentric overload.

For the record, I intend for this group of exercises to help with knee joint injury prevention, and hamstring and groin health. They represent most of the exercises I use most frequently in training; the rest are horizontal pulls with conic options.

An Important Warning Before Adding or Trying the Exercises

While the benefits of the flywheel exercises here are huge, some risk exists with any training protocol, including isoinertial training. Unlike barbells, spotting and other protective measures are really not possible with flywheel platforms. A rack can be set up to prevent descent with a barbell squat, but so far I have not seen anything equivalent to the flywheel leg options.

If you are not prepared and the athlete is overcome by the overload, they will be pinned to the base or platform. However, I have seen only one person get pinned and it was a strength coach experimenting with the machine. Otherwise, I have not witnessed a single injury, accident, or error using the equipment over the years. This is not a testament to my coaching or exercise selection, it’s just that eccentric training with mature, focused athletes means that they are likely fighting the resistance and are on high alert.

I am not saying that flywheels create some mythical survival contraction, but rapid eccentrics do recruit muscle fibers uniquely. The central nervous system (CNS) treats eccentric contractions differently, thus explaining the higher levels of force and work capability by the body compared to concentric contractions. All of the exercises here are designed to deplete the athlete at the end of a workout or, if added sets are included, to exhaust the athlete as a replacement session.

The videos here are authentic; meaning, they are typical of what an athlete will do after a few sessions. While the technique is solid, you can see how some of the clips reveal limitations and learning curves. While the joint angles and positions are easy to see, how the body receives the forces is less visible and must be explained.

I include some progressions and tips here, but for the most part the descriptions of how to perform the movements, along with the videos, should be more than enough to implement the exercises. I always recommend that coaches try and master the movements so they can experience the firsthand perspective for better instruction. Learning by doing really helps reduce the learning curve and error rate.

Note: A coach or trainer needs to prescribe any and all of the listed exercises, and we are not responsible for injuries or poor performance due to fatigue. Your performance of the exercises below means you accept the risk and are under the guidance of proper supervision or are educated on how to apply sports training modalities.

Depletion Belt Squats with Biofeedback

The use of the kMeter or other flywheel sensor is perfect for small groups, rehabilitation settings, or one-on-one training. In addition to feedback, the ability to test athletes periodically is also a major benefit, and using an Apple TV with external speakers can really help create an environment for better power testing and profiling, along with training. Squatting is the primary reason I use flywheels, and it’s one of the main engines to ACL and knee injury prevention. I do use single-leg exercises, proprioception training, foot function assessments, and other methods of preparation, but eccentric squatting works like a charm.

Instead of a shoulder harness, I have found that a belt works great with flywheel training. I prefer belts because:

• Shoulder harnesses create more total force concentrically to rebound back into isoinertial momentum, but they are total body in nature and recruit lumbar extensors heavily.
• Waist belts are cheaper and speed up small group training. When you have a limit on equipment, it compromises workflow.
• Athletes with poor pelvic control can use waist belts to learn to control lordosis by managing the tilt of the hips.

Another factor in training depletion squats is knowing when to cut off the reps when the forces drop. For the record, I don’t have enough data or a large enough athlete population to give a precise drop-off suggestion, but I have a pearl of wisdom: Don’t chase a number, but look for bad movement trends like compensations that look wrong to the naked eye.

I prefer to keep the reps in the range of six to 10 for depletion work, and decide to stop sets based on average overload (percentage). If the athlete can’t hit a sufficient eccentric positive contribution, I stop the set or exercise series.

Video 1. This shows the most common way to train with a flywheel, but adding biofeedback drastically increases output and precision of loading. Remember that a 90-degree or shallower squat is typical with flywheel squatting—personally, I like faster time frames for athletes.

Squat depth is a tricky factor in the equation, but in my experience, athletes that have deep squats still prefer shallower actions. In fact, the differences between the barbell displacement and flywheel squat distances become larger as the speed of the camshaft increases. I am currently researching jumping data from force plates and style of flywheel squatting for peak outputs, and hope to have better answers down the road.

A good takeaway here is to watch posterior tilt, as athletes tend to get into spinal flexion earlier due to the stance style selected. Follow the same principles of barbell squatting technique for selecting flywheel depth.

Coach Tip: The kMeter audio readings give instant feedback, so you can stop based on the dropoff in speed, force, or any other change. I typically hit my best numbers at reps past 10.

Squat to Romanian Deadlift Combo

One of the most wicked and unholy exercises is the squat to Romanian Deadlift (RDL) combo that proliferates on the internet. SimpliFaster went over the benefits of the RDL, and this is a little different and worth adding only after athletes can at least hit the 1.5x bodyweight threshold. If you can do a great heavy RDL with polished technique, don’t bother doing this movement. In fact, what is necessary is that you can pull from the floor in a squatting drive, something that may look like a deadlift, but is more like a hexagonal bar pull. Some coaches deadlift the bar up and lower it like a RDL, but adding more of a squatting motion unloads the paraspinals and helps reduce fatigue.

Video 2. The key to the exercise is not the RDL motion, but transitioning back into a squatting pull-up by dropping the butt down and getting into the pulling motion quickly. I don’t recommend doing this exercise for overload until the sequence looks polished as a warm-up or GPP movement.

I like the movement because it’s like adding nitro to the conventional RDL, due to the early eccentric force, and it’s also a good warm-up for traditional training. Conventional RDLs tend to have slower motions, which is a great benefit for teaching, but rapid eccentrics do help with increasing recruitment and the EMG readings I have seen show a difference. I have no solid evidence that flywheel RDLs are dramatically different than traditional RDLs in lengthening the structures of the hamstring group, but I am confident this exercise is worth implementing for general hamstring preparation.

I don’t teach or suggest this exercise to any athlete I work with unless they have one year of eccentric training with flywheels under their belt. The rationale for delaying the implementation of the exercise is that I want nearly no learning curve to interfere with training time, but will allow some wiggle room minutes to let athletes problem-solve the task. An athlete doesn’t need to crank reps quickly; just performing them as part of a warm-up provides a great stretch and wakes up the body better than only using bar complexes.

My final advice on this exercise is a word of caution: Don’t do this with athletes who are not good barbell lifters. Fragile athletes who do finesse-style training will get crippled by this sequence of movements. I don’t use this with athletes who are not able to lift from the floor or have a history of back injuries that are mechanical in nature.

Coach Tip: Each athlete can create tension to the hamstrings differently, and some need to use a bar attachment. Due to the flywheel, resistance force is higher earlier on the lift, so use a position that allows a safe and effective reception to the load.

Jerk and Elevated-Style Split Squats

The split squat has gained a lot of traction, but like any trend, time will tell how effective it is as more research comes out. Electromyography research on the split squat was done years ago, but the studies found nothing earth-shattering. Other exercises, like the hip thrust, are being researched to show transfer value, not just EMG activity. I have analyzed the split landing style of jerks, rear foot elevated split squats, single-leg squats, and bilateral squats. While what I have seen with traditional barbells is very straightforward, flywheels are mostly unknown.

The reason that we, as coaches, differentiate terminology so much is because the small differences matter. A single leg squat, a lunge, and a split squat are different animals. While similar in benefits, their differences in execution matter enough to put attention on those individual applications.

Video 3. The Flywheel Split Squat option has important set-up and execution details that really matter. It’s important you consider safety, as using the wrong equipment can increase the risk of injury.

The most obvious need with flywheel split squats is a solid platform to apply forces with the rear leg for balance and/or propulsion. No platform is perfect, but with the right placement of accessory equipment, doing either the rear leg unsupported split squat or a jerk-style option is a breeze. After you create a solid setup, the next decision is what option matches the needs of your program. Split squats without support are different than a double support option, but mainly on the eccentric hamstring activity side. Currently, what happens when you change the vector to angle forward is unknown, but any time resistance angles change, the recruitment of muscle groups should theoretically also change.

Some potentiation research is available on low load and light load split squats, and while this is great for warm-ups for speed work, I don’t think it’s worth doing in weight training unless the workout has enough volume and intensity to create a strong training stimulus. Potentiation training is great for helping the next exercise, but as primary drivers of performance, the volumes and intensities are usually not high enough to be staples in a program. It would be interesting to see the longitudinal studies on potentiation exercise volumes as a control to paired training to determine whether they alone are enough to be good developers of strength and power.

Overall, the constant tension of the split squat is a great way to help with hypertrophy in those that need muscle mass. Any claim that there is far less strain on the spine when doing a split squat is simply a leap of faith that has no documentation. If the rear leg does have too much involvement, it will torque the sacrum. Remember that no exercise is “free of sin,” especially as overloads reach higher levels. Be careful on heavy split squat training just as with any other exercise.

Coach Tip: The split squat is a great option for beginners who need to put on muscle mass and learn a movement through repetition. You can use different rear leg apparatus and methods to create a split squat, but make sure the foot is in the middle of the flywheel machine for balance.

Assisted Lateral Squats

Lateral squats are similar to split squats as they are single-leg overload options, but they are not a pure unilateral movement. The only true single-leg exercise I recommend here in the series is the RDL option I will outline later. Lateral squats are like split squats in that they are double supported but single leg emphasized. Single-leg training with flywheels has a lot of potential for overload due to the fact two legs can help drive the weight up and one leg can take the brunt of the work down. Assisting the weight up with two legs, even if it’s the non-primary driver, just adds a small boost, and is enough to make a difference.

Video 4. Preference and technique influence how you emphasize the propulsion leg with lateral squatting. Flywheels add vector-specific benefits so angled movements are safe and effective. I believe the harness is important to consider when doing lateral squat exercises.

Some set-up requirements are necessary for lateral squats, just like split squats, but they’re not a big problem for most gyms or even outdoors. The key variables are width and pushing angle. Besides those two choices, lateral squat variations are nearly endless. I like rhythmic alternating conventional squats with double support up and single-leg emphasis down, but the lateral squat shown above is a great option too, provided the support leg helps with vertical forces up so all of the eccentric overload down is high.

I have not seen change-of-direction performance improvements from this exercise, but I do see changes in tendon and connective tissue reported as soreness after games. Frankly, sled drags with a crossover step are movements that may have general benefits, but frictional forces are not as effective as isoinertial resistance options. I do both for hockey players but not for other sports, as the contraction time periods in skating are more connected to strength than elastic modalities.

We need more innovation in flywheel exercise creation, as the lateral squat is a great movement and the reductions in groin injuries with soccer and hockey have been enough to statistically merit its inclusion. Ideally, I would have a better theory for the reason this movement pattern benefits athletes, but for now I will trust that something is going on that is worth exploring.

Coach Tip: I liked this exercise more than I thought I would. You can use the footbar acessory or go flat footed. The key is the transition from receiving the force on one leg to shifting to a position of double-leg concentric pushing for a true overload.

Single Leg Romanian Deadlifts

The only time I like single-leg RDLs is with the flywheel option, due to the fact the athlete is tethered with the strap. Three options exist for the hand, or hand combination, to use: the supported leg side, both arms, or the opposite arm. Some trainers have taken a leap in speculating that gripping the bar or handle hard will leverage force irradiation, thus recruiting more muscle fibers elsewhere. While it’s cool to make conjectures on grip and distal muscle groups, this has yet to be seen anywhere in the research for this type of exercise. Olympic lifters that demonstrate great power usually relax their arms and have a hook grip; they don’t strangle the bar as much as we think they do.

Video 5. Here is a video series of three different grips with the single-leg RDL. Athletes need more skill for successful muscle recruitment with a single leg, but the flywheel adds some balance support to the exercise.

Based on my experience, the theory that the adductors will recruit more motor units utilizing the same side grip doesn’t have much merit, but I understand why somebody would draw the conclusion at first glance. A skilled athlete can benefit from any grip style, provided they know how to control the forces from the foot up to the pelvis. The most important detail of single-leg RDLs with a flywheel is that you can put some serious force into the ground, provided you really cue the pull from the hip and keep the spine long and tight. Flywheel single-leg RDLs with slower speeds and higher forces seem to help teach the lift better, and they prevent cheating on the movement.

The last point of contention I see with the research is the flair or external rotation and muscle activation with single-leg RDLs. While I appreciate the theory and some of the findings, it is a stretch to believe that major muscle-building possibilities will occur with foot position. Along with a balanced foot, band resistance with a slow spin can help an athlete pull harder.

Balance is the overarching variable at play; thus, higher outputs cancel potential anatomical leverages. Some athletes may benefit from small foot positions, but loading and balance usually override muscle recruitment’s small benefits.

Coach Tip: The placement of the foot relative to the strap is crucial. If you have the medial part of the foot facing the strap, the flywheel system will pull you in. Strap placement is beneficial for some athletes to teach how to resist the medial forces. I think another point to consider is that the entire range of motion is more loaded with the flywheel than with the end range in DB versions.

Create Your Own List and Decide What Works for You

Again, this list consists of my favorite and most valued exercises for platform-style flywheel training. I have seen a dramatic reduction in injuries to the soft tissues of at-risk athletes and those that have come to me with a laundry list of surgeries and previous muscle and joint trauma. Athletes with a history of injuries who are known to be “injury prone” have made returns with increased performance and durability that caused me, a free weight guy, to respect and value flywheel machines. Create your own list of exercises and contraction styles and see what works for you.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

For more than five years, Andrew Flatt and Mike Esco have conducted sports performance HRV studies on collegiate athletes, and they’ve teamed up with other colleagues to investigate American football. Their latest project involves monitoring HRV in collegiate football players during spring camp.

Different positions in football tend to have different levels of body mass and fitness, and therefore you might expect them to show different responses to training. Backs and receivers experience the greatest running demands and tend to be the leanest and fittest, while linemen require the greatest strength and body mass to win the frequent physical bouts, but don’t need to run as much. For this study, the researchers were particularly interested in seeing the effects of training load on the day-to-day recovery of each positional group measured using HRV.

The Investigation

During a four-week spring training camp, Flatt and Esco monitored 25 players over 14 training sessions. This consisted of three to four practice sessions and two resistance sessions per week, with Sundays reserved for complete rest. The player split was 11 backs and receivers (skill); nine running backs, linebackers, and tight ends (mid-skill); and five linemen.

The researchers derived external training load (Catapult total player load) from accelerometers worn by the players during the training sessions. They monitored internal load and recovery using the ithlete HRV Team System and finger sensor three days during Week 2 to create a baseline, and then on Saturday of the same week to create a post-training reading. Baseline changes were calculated from this reading, as well as the coefficient of variation, which these researchers have shown correlates with lower VO2 max and running performance.

Findings from the Data

The researchers’ first discovery was that, as suspected, changes in HRV from baseline were dependent on playing position. The researchers saw a relationship between player position and internal load HRV data, allowing teams to profile each athlete better. How a team can take advantage of this will likely depend on the way practices are prescribed during the training week, an area in American football that is still embryonic.

Looking at all the data, body mass was a primary factor in determining the response to training loads, and work rate and type of work as well. As the athlete becomes smaller, the distanced covered increases, and contact usually decreases. Player load scores are a composite of all types of loading, including high speed running, collisions, and even jumping.

What It Means for Coaches

This study found a clear difference between the three positional groups in their ability to handle the high training loads imposed by the spring camp schedule. Linemen seemed to be significantly more vulnerable to high training loads, and found it more difficult to recover within a 24-hour period than the other groups.

The authors theorized that the higher body mass, combined with lower aerobic fitness and greater reliance on short-term anaerobic energy production, contributed to higher levels of HRV disturbance in linemen. They also suggested that higher aerobic fitness might offer protection to this group of players. Finally, they concluded that short 60-second pre-training HRV readings are practical and offer useful information to coaches of elite American football players to help optimize training loads for players in different positions.

The strength of this paper is that it combined both internal and external measurements, and created a working model on how different-sized athletes who play different positions respond to practices during intense training periods. Coaches who choose to use the HRV response information can compare and contrast training load patterns easily and immediately.

Conclusions and Future Explorations

The study shows that a working strategy for the collection, analysis, and interpretation of HRV in American football is not only possible, it’s practical in a large team when short sampling times are used. The strength of the ithlete system is its ability to quickly capture data at team facilities or at home, and then provide guidance on how the athlete’s autonomic nervous system is responding. In the future, it is certainly possible that HRV readings will be used to help manage fatigue and reduce injury, now that the technology is practical and easy to use.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is one of the most important systems in the human body for health and well being. Its processes have vast effects on your internal systems and can affect general health both short term and long term. On top of general health, the ANS is linked more closely with performance than I previously imagined. Let’s look at the ANS and how it influences performance both chronically and acutely. If you’re anything like me, you’ve completely underestimated how important it is and how to influence it.

What is the Autonomic Nervous System Exactly?

The ANS is not to be confused with the Central Nervous System (CNS). The CNS is responsible for all movement and function from an active/conscious standpoint. The CNS activates when you want to accomplish certain tasks and have a certain amount of conscious control. The CNS is responsible for activating motor units and creating muscle action.

The ANS, on the other hand, is responsible for autonomic processes in the human body that require no conscious control–things like breathing, heartbeat, and digestion (as well as countless others). You don’t have to tell yourself to do these things, they happen whether you’re thinking about them or not. Of course with breathing, you can choose to alter how you breathe, but regardless, your body will get oxygen without your thought. We’ll get more into breathing later on. The ANS also has two branches: Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System.

The sympathetic state is our stress response, which most people refer to as “fight or flight.” The stress response is meant to prioritize short-term survival by making energy more readily available, increasing blood pressure, heart rate, adrenaline, etc.

The parasympathetic state is our relaxed state, which most people refer to as “rest and digest.” This state is intent on long-term survival and prioritizes recovery, digestion, and relaxation.

As a coach, I used to understand very little about how the ANS affected my athletes, so there may be other coaches out there who would benefit from a greater understanding. Let’s get into what these states mean from an acute and chronic perspective and the myriad ways we can influence them.

Chronic Stress and the Autonomic System

What’s remarkable about the ANS is that its activation has long-standing effects on our overall health and well being. When you’re stressed, the sympathetic system kicks on and creates a cascade of stress responses like raised blood pressure and heart rate, reduced saliva, increased adrenaline, and a slew of other processes. Your body senses something difficult or stressful and piles on the effects to help you combat them. From an evolutionary perspective, this would mean the risk of danger or death. It’s what makes the sympathetic system interesting.

In How Children Succeed by Paul Tough, the author uncovers a correlation between many chronic diseases and a person’s history of stressful events. Someone who has activated their sympathetic system for a long time develops chronic diseases from the repeated stress response during that time. What’s most interesting is how the body responds to varying levels of stress and danger in virtually the same way.

In his book, Paul borrows from Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers by Robert Sapolsky and likens the response to a fire department. The fire department sends out trucks for any call, not just deadly fires. They sound the alarm and mobilize the trucks for a dumpster fire because that’s their response, they don’t choose to send one firefighter on a bicycle in that scenario, they send the whole fleet.

The body does something similar; there’s very little context for the stress response. If something causes stress, physically or mentally, the body always responds the same way. Spending a lifetime in the sympathetic state is a dangerous place to be. It will hinder recovery and lead to a shorter lifespan. And yet we wouldn’t want to turn off the mechanism. The stress response influences the body for short-term performance and survival. So how do we balance the body?

Even though the stress response is autonomic, we still influence its action. As athletes, we’re are open to the same life stressors as anyone else plus the sympathetic reaction to intense training and competition. If you’ve never realized it, intense training is a major stress to the body.

We should be open to activating the sympathetic nervous system acutely to increase performance for competition. We can do this many ways, including listening to intense music, doing a competitive warm up, or even mental imagery. In this study, mental imagery activated the sympathetic state in a way similar to doing the activity. Coaches should keep this in mind when they need their athletes activated because some of them may have a hard time getting up for competition.

It’s a difficult task–how do we influence the body’s ANS to aid us both in short-term performance and long-term health.

The more information I collect on the ANS, the more I realize how important it is for athletes to stimulate the parasympathetic response and drive recovery. This can occur after exercise–or during if it’s a longer activity. The parasympathetic system prioritizes long-term health and shifts focus to recovery and relaxation. Things that get turned off to focus on survival (sympathetic) reactivate when we focus on relaxation (parasympathetic). If you’re familiar with Wim Hof, much of what he does involves tapping into and influencing the ANS for amazing feats.

So what does this mean for our athletes in the short term and the long term?

Chronic Considerations of Parasympathetic Activation

Although it’s possible to become overly parasympathetic (ask Dr. Mike Nelson), I don’t think our readers and clients will have this issue. For the most part, we lack chronic activation of the parasympathetic system. As athletes, we constantly put our bodies into a stressful state. For this reason, it’s more important to educate our athletes about the mechanisms necessary for parasympathetic activation. For those who need tools to activate the parasympathetic system, I offer some strategies toward the end of this article.

Even though it is autonomic, there are many ways we can influence the parasympathetic state. Too often, I hear people discussing stress in a general sense, and I’m frustrated by how misleading the conversations are. Most people believe stress and relaxation are out of their control, or the things they believe to be stress relievers actually are not.

Yes, stress happens, but if you want to relax, then you should actively try to put your body in a relaxed state. Research has shown that there are several ways to influence the ANS. As an example, this study shows how stretching after exercise can drive parasympathetic activity. Without stretching, sympathetic activity would be elevated at this point.

These are the small interventions we can pass on to our athletes without altering anything in our training program. In a sense, the ANS is very much like the CNS: for performance, we want to become efficient at activating the system. However, we’d be hardpressed to find a coach who wants their athlete to continue taxing the CNS outside of training and competition.

Likewise, driving a sympathetic response in training and competition is beneficial, but an extended sympathetic state could have negative effects over the long term. A light switch is a perfect analogy. When we need light, we want it to be efficient and effective (acute), but it’s wasteful to leave it on all the time (chronic). Learning how to turn it on (sympathetic) and off (parasympathetic) could play a significant role in athletic development.

As a coach, I look for ways to reduce the amount of stress/load/activity on my athletes away from training so that, when we choose to activate/overload them, we get the performance we want. If you haven’t yet considered the “state” your athletes are in away from training, you may want to begin investigating.

From a long-term perspective, this probably means monitoring HRV and using daily readiness questionnaires to see trends in their answers. These tell us how they are responding to their training and lifestyle. The information is especially valuable both for long-term health and performance results. How does their body respond to this day, week, and block of training? How do they respond to various types of training? These are very important factors to be sure and have been discussed in other HRV articles; consider reading more on that topic.

What’s been interesting to me lately is how we can influence or use the autonomic state for performance and, specifically, acute responses. What sort of interventions can we use to create a desirable response in our athletes?

Acute ANS Repsonses

Will the current state of my athlete dictate their performance in any way?

Is there anything I can do to influence their body through their warm up or competition prep?

It would be very easy to look past these questions and only consider the biomechanical and physiological components of preparing the athlete for competition–like priming the CNS and prepping movement patterns or tissues. At the least, it’s worthwhile to ask yourself if your athlete is ready or “activated.”

Some of the elite coaches I’ve talked to have a definite grasp of the interventions affecting the autonomic state, although sometimes they don’t refer to it this way.

If we look a little more closely at competition, we see other factors at play that can affect outcomes. The sympathetic state allows for increases in short-term performance. The purpose of the fight or flight response is to increase our abilities in a situation where our life might be at risk so we can succeed against our foe. This means that our body will do such things as:

• increase our sense perception
• mobilize energy for fast consumption
• increase blood pressure and heart rate to deliver energy
• inhibit pain response

With an acute threat, the body prioritizes necessary acute responses over long-term processes (increased blood flow for delivery of nutrients and oxygen over digestion). It’s safe to say that elite competition occurs in a sympathetic state.

While looking for more answers about how the ANS affects performance, I contacted Steve Fudge, Sprints Coach with British Athletics, to learn about his experiences. I had heard that Steve collected saliva samples from his athletes and gathered data. He observed that his athletes had differences in how quickly and efficiently they transitioned in and out of the sympathetic state. This fact should push coaches to try and identify their athletes’ transition rates.

In an ideal world, we’d flash into the sympathetic state to use its performance-enhancing processes and then go back to parasympathetic quickly to allow for recovery and lessen the damage of the long-term stress response (zebras and ulcers). Especially considering that some athletes take up to 24 hours to recover completely from a workout or practice, as shown in this study on HRV in sport.

The challenge is that athletes might need to be classified and treated differently in this regard. Steve used the terms warrior and worrier (which he may have borrowed from Henk Kraijenhoff), and it gave me a bit of an Aha! Moment, if I’m honest. I’ve observed this with athletes, and I know other coaches who have dealt with this, but in hindsight.

The warrior is someone who doesn’t turn on the sympathetic state easily. This athlete is pretty chilled out most of the time. On the flipside, the worrier is often sympathetic and is generally stressed out about many things. Plugging your athlete into one of these categories can really help you customize their competition preparation.

The warrior needs to be activated. This athlete needs a more rigorous and competitive warm up to enter the sympathetic state and achieve the stress response we want. The worrier may become too agitated and active. Remember, we only want to activate for competition or the repeated stress response could be detrimental to health and performance. This athlete should probably be controlled more throughout their pre-competition routines. One group of athletes needs a push, and one needs a pull.

• Did your athlete burnout too soon?
• Did they fail to rise up and hit training PRs/projections?

These are the potential outcomes from never looking at, or considering, your athletes’ hormonal status.

Luckily we have coaches like Steve, who has the budget and foresight to do hormonal testing and provide us with data; I’d never be able to do that. What I can do, though, is be an observant coach through training and competition. When looking at performance outcomes, in both training and competition, it’s important to note an athlete’s external factors:

• How do they train when they’re going through stressful times?
• How easily do they get activated in training?
• Do they overachieve in competition or underachieve?

If you’ve never considered these questions, it’s time you started to think about them. Luckily, providing your athlete with tools to aid their recovery is one of the easiest things you can do.

Coaching Methods to Maniplulate the ANS

Instead of simply sharing my observations, I think it’s important to have actionable items to impact an athlete’s sympathetic state. Here are some common ways to influence and activate the ANS. These are a list of popular parasympathetic interventions to help your athletes relax and recover.

Deep Breathing
One of the simplest and most common solutions is deep diaphragmatic breathing. Slow deep breaths into your diaphragm signals to your body that you’re in a relatively safe space and helps kick on the parasympathetic system. Deep breathing also gets the diaphragm working. Consider implementing deep breathing a few times a day to calm nerves and aid recovery. If you fit one in early in the day, your diaphragm should be humming along nicely. I mention deep breathing first because it’s part of many of the other parasympathetic interventions.

Meditation
Meditation has slowly become more common with both athletes and non-athletes. Practicing meditation no longer holds the stigma of being a hippie; now it’s associated with mindfulness and self-reflection. Spending some quiet time alone trying to be mindful really can help relax the body. Deep diaphragmatic breathing is often used during this practice, so the parasympathetic response will be there. If you’re into flow, this could be a great way to get into it.

Stretching
Although some people are in the habit of stretching post workout, there are still may who gloss over it. This study suggests that static stretching after workouts can induce a parasympathetic response. If you take your time while stretching, you can also tie in meditation and deep breathing. I’ll include Yoga in this category, although it’s a unique blend of stretching, breathing, and meditation.

Float Tanks
Float tanks have been gaining popularity lately. The concept is simple–a tank is filled with close to 1000lb of Epsom salts and closed off from sight and sound. The salt and water temperature make the body feel weightless and also eliminate feeling on the skin. The sensory deprivation helps keep the nervous system from being active. The only way to stop yourself from processing information is to stop the information from coming in.

When I asked Steve about float tanks, he said this was possibly the most effective parasympathetic intervention. One of the many reasons is probably because Epsom salts are magnesium, and magnesium is important for many processes:

“Thus, one should keep in mind that ATP metabolism, muscle contraction and relaxation, normal neurological function and release of neurotransmitters are all magnesium dependent. It is also important to note that magnesium contributes to the regulation of vascular tone, heart rhythm, platelet-activated thrombosis and bone formation,” as explained in this paper.

On a related note, this study suggested that float tanks may be an effective treatment for anxiety, which makes sense based on our discussion about the stress response.

Music Therapy
If you’re into music, this study showed a parasympathetic response to music. Consider spending some time relaxing with your favorite music or playing it while you nap. Perhaps incorporate deep breathing, meditation, and stretching to give yourself some real recovery time.

Power Napping
Napping is one of the most underrated interventions. Napping can help both the ANS and CNS to recuperate. Considering many athletes don’t get enough sleep at night, this could be a great place to start. Practice working your way into your nap with some guided breathing to maximize relaxation.

There are other ways to deal with stress and drive recovery. This list includes strategies I’ve heard from other coaches, witnessed myself, or found in the research.

Closing Thoughts on the Autonomic Nervous Systems

Creating a sympathetic environment should be fairly easy and straightforward, but if you feel like your athlete isn’t getting competition ready, there are a couple of things you could try. Many coaches like using a competitive warm up to stimulate a stress response. This study showed that mental imagery stimulated the sympathetic system similar to the actual competition. If all else fails, have your athletes picture the zombie apocalypse, and that should lead to lifetime PRs.

I am by no means an expert on the ANS or preparing your athletes for competition. I would love to hear other coaches’ feedback on systems that work for them or observations that they’ve made. This topic isn’t even on the radar for a lot of new coaches. Hopefully this opens up the dialogue and leads us to better results!

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Part of being an effective track and field coach is constructing training for athletes that’s designed to address the demands of their events. Over the years, I’ve developed relationships with numerous coaches from a wide variety of sports.  I’m alarmed by the high percentage of coaches who don’t design training based on the demands of their sport.  While there are track coaches who fall into this category, the percentage of field and court (FC) coaches (particularly soccer, football, and basketball) is substantially higher.

When I talk to these coaches, they throw around terms like an athlete has great “game speed” or is “football fast.”  When asked to explain how their training addresses these phrases, they dance around the question and often give an unsatisfactory answer.

To all FC coaches, before you dismiss me as an out-of-touch track coach, let me bring to light issues of which I am well aware:

• The environment of FC sports is more chaotic than track and field (although track is probably more chaotic than most think).
• Change of direction is prominent in FC sports.  It’s not prominent in track and field.
• FC athletes often make reactive decisions (agility) based on game situations, environmental conditions, and the actions of their teammates and opponents.  These factors also impact decisions track and field athletes make.
• In FC sports, the positions from which athletes have to generate speed are unpredictable.  In track and field, there is minimal variation.

Why should FC sport coaches care about a track coach’s perspective?  As a track coach, my X’s and O’s are to get people to run faster, jump higher and farther, and throw farther.  Although we don’t study offensive and defensive schemes and don’t scout our opponents, we constantly self-scout our athletes to get them to move better and determine what activities they respond best to in training.

Track coaches committed to their craft constantly study training methods to enhance human performance, so the numbers are smaller on the clock and larger on the tape measure.  Taking these factors taken into account, the following represents how I would approach (as a track coach) training design for FC sports.

Addressing Energy System Distribution in Training

All coaches should have a fundamental knowledge of the body’s energy systems.  This article by Jason Karp Ph.D. gives a brief overview of the three–phosphagen, glycolytic, and aerobic.  Although we try to categorize the energy systems the body uses into sequential silos based on the intensity and duration of exercise, the reality is much more complicated.

Karp states, “The production of ATP is never achieved by the exclusive use of one energy system, but rather by the coordinated response of all three energy systems contributing to different degrees.”¹  For a simple example, compare a running back scoring a 50-yard touchdown in both the first quarter and the fourth quarter.  The phosphagen system may have been used almost exclusively for the run in the first quarter. But due to fatigue acquired during the game, the run in the fourth quarter may have been a combination of the phosphagen and glycolytic systems.  The aerobic system would have a small role during both runs.

Despite the gray area that exists in producing energy, coaches must know the demands of their sport and how energy system usage applies.  American football incorporates a short high-intensity effort followed by a break.  At the high school level, the average play is 5.6 seconds with 30.8 seconds between plays.² Basketball and soccer, on the other hand, involve athletes in constant motion who have periods of high and low effort depending on the game situation.

Due to the different gameplay demands, the percentage of training that addresses each energy system should vary. What is the appropriate distribution and what are the advantages obtained from training each? This part of my series on energy systems will address the phosphagen system.

The Phosphagen System and Maximum Speed

The phosphagen system is prioritized for maximum efforts up to ~10 seconds.  For FC sports, this is short bouts of maximum effort.  Although various research does not come to a common percentage of phosphagen system usage for FC sports, all agree it’s used the most.  In football, it’s almost used exclusively, and in soccer and basketball, it’s used only slightly less.

Despite this fact, many FC coaches have a gaping hole in their programming.  While many do well training the phosphagen system in the weight room, their systems fail to include the best way to train it–sprinting.  Training to enhance maximum speed not only leads to a higher top-end speed, but also improves acceleration, strength, change of direction, and speed reserve. ^{3, 4, 5}

Furthermore, a 2012 study of professional soccer players showed that linear sprinting is the most frequent action in goal situations. Because sprinting has a global effect on athleticism and due to its overall importance in FC sports, it’s the type of max effort activity I’ll address.

All coaches want faster athletes, but many have their athletes do everything to get faster except sprinting maximally with full recovery.  If I want to get better at shooting free-throws, I shoot free-throws.  If I want to get better at throwing a football, I throw a football.   The principle of specificity must reign supreme when attempting to enhance maximum speed.

We can train this quality by getting the athlete into a starting position (use a wide variety) and sprinting just beyond the point where they attain maximum speed. For most high school athletes, max speed occurs between 15m (novice) and 50m (elite), so sprints between 20m and 60m fit the bill.  A guideline for rest is one minute for every 10m sprinted in a rep (40m sprint = 4 minutes rest).

In terms of dosage, athletes should sprint one to three times per week depending on the time of year and the demands of their position. To ensure maximum efforts, sprints must be timed. An automated system such as Freelap is ideal, but a stopwatch is better than nothing.

According to Dr. Pat Davidson, research shows that the ability to enhance the phosphagen system’s percentage of energy contribution does not increase much, if at all, through training. ⁶ My takeaway is that the volume of max effort activity in training does not have to be high.  If we’re not altering the energy system much, do what is needed to develop the nervous system and nothing more. For example, a typical maximum speed day for our program rarely exceeds 160m of total volume.

Just because the phosphagen system’s contribution may not improve much with training does not mean there are no benefits regarding energy.  The primary purpose of sprinting with full recovery is to enhance maximum speed.  All FC coaches should desire this.  The by-product of increasing maximum speed is improving speed reserve.

Speed Reserve

Speed reserve is not a complicated concept: The faster an athlete’s maximum speed, the faster their sub-maximum speed.  For example, suppose Athlete A has a maximum speed of 10 m/s, and Athlete B has a maximum speed of 9 m/s.  A percentage of their sub-maximum speeds are listed in the table below:

While these numbers are arbitrary, they get the point across.  The faster athlete can exhibit less effort and still move faster (Athlete A can move at 82% and be faster than Athlete B’s 90%).  If I were an FC sport coach, I would like a team full of athletes who could move faster without having to try as hard.  It would be beneficial as the game continues to progress.  If two small forwards are playing man-to-man against each other and one can average an 80% effort to guard the other while the other has to exert maximum effort while on defense, who will be in a better place once the fourth quarter rolls around?

Training at maximum speed with full recovery improves maximum speed capabilities, which raises the level of sub-maximum speed capabilities.  The carry-over is that a faster athlete has better sub-maximum speed repeatability because they can “try less” (leaving more energy in the tank) while still meeting the demands of a task.

Unfortunately many coaches view improving repeat sprint ability (RSA) from only one end of the spectrum.  Gassers, ladders, and even standard wind sprints are often performed without full recovery and until failure (primarily addressing the glycolytic system).  The work can be valuable, but in many cases it’s overdone. While the capacity to operate at a submaximal level may improve, an athlete’s maximum speed is not improving very much, if at all.

It would behoove these athletes to train on the other end of the spectrum. Purdue men’s basketball strength and conditioning coach, Josh Bonhotal, says it best, “A common mistake is to attack repeat sprint ability when you have never truly developed speed and thus sprint ability itself.” ⁷

Greater Max Speed ⇨ Greater Strength?

This idea seems foreign to most in the FC sport arena, at least at the high school level.  Most would view it the other way around–get stronger to get faster.  I have great respect for strength coaches, but I think many promote this idea and chase arbitrary weight room numbers to justify their positions.  Also, there are high school FC coaches who promote this idea to keep their athletes from competing in other sports.  They may do it because that’s what they believe regarding training or because they feel it necessary define an athlete’s high school experience.  In either case, the motives and rationales are questionable.

An athlete can move faster by increasing force put into the ground (via higher brute force or improving the direction of force), or decreasing time spent on the ground.  If an athlete is in a maximum speed training program, both often occur.  Being able to deliver more force in less time is an ideal type of functional strength.  If the body’s various structures can handle a higher speed, it’s logical to conclude that the structures are stronger.  Furthermore, sprinting can increase protein synthesis pathways by as much as 230%.⁸

Reaching a higher top-end speed not only improves force output but also improves the ability to absorb higher forces. A faster athlete will decelerate from a higher speed than a slower athlete.  If there is a defined distance to decelerate, the faster athlete will absorb more force over that distance.  The greater eccentric loads placed on the faster athlete lead to an increase in strength.  The ability to absorb force is essential for FC sports due to the change of direction requirements.

If athletes train at maximum speed, they will get faster.  Being able to squat, bench, clean, and deadlift more weight will probably help a high school athlete get faster.  In a presentation given at ALTIS, Arizona Cardinals strength and conditioning coach Buddy Morris stated, “Sprinting drives up your weights, weights don’t necessarily drive up your sprinting.” ⁹  Why not create a program that uses the best of both worlds?

Max Speed and Injury Resistance

Sprinting to achieve maximum speed is highly neural, and it must be trained so the athlete’s nervous system does not short circuit during competition.  If the nervous system is not ready to handle operating at maximum speed, injuries (such as pulled muscles) are more likely to occur.

On a side note, for those who don’t believe muscle pulls can be a neurological issue instead of a muscle issue, there’s a 2014 study of elite-level soccer players that showed sports-related concussions increased the risk of a subsequent injuries (such as a hamstring or groin pull) by 50%.¹⁰

The flow charts are different, but they end up in the same place. In the first, the control center is sending enough power to light a stadium to a system that is only equipped to light a bedroom. The second is like flipping on a bedroom light switch to light the kitchen, but the garage light turns on 5 minutes later. In other words, the control center (brain and spinal cord) is sending wrong signals to the nerves, which are getting muscles to contract and relax at inopportune times.

Many FC coaches are scared to have athletes sprint in training because they see players get injured when they sprint during a competition. I understand that player availability is a huge factor of success. When we introduce sprinting in a conservative and progressive manner, it is safe and leaves the athlete better prepared. I often wonder if the coaches who don’t train sprints due to injury risk are the same ones who have athletes hold logs over their heads while being sprayed with water–seems like conflicting logic.

Coaches who are serious about their craft pride themselves on their ability to prepare. It only makes sense to address competition demands in training.

Strength coach Kyle Kennedy recently tweeted, “The ability to create and close space is most important in most team sports.”¹¹ Addressing the phosphagen system in a balanced format which includes sprinting, agility, and strength training will lead to improvements in this ability.

In the upcoming part(s) of this series, I will address the glycolytic and aerobic energy systems along with some other considerations.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Karp, Jason. “The Three Metabolic Energy Systems.”
2. Holler, Tony. “New Ideas for Old School Football Coaches.”
3. Hansen, Derek. “Sprint Training: The Complete System.”
4. Hansen, Derek. “The Relevance and Importance of Speed Reserve in all Sports.” Strength Power Speed, July 17, 2014.
5. Clark, Ken. “The Mechanics of Underlying Linear Sprinting Performance.” Speed Science. PowerPoint Presentation.
6. Davidson, Pat. “Episode 104: Interview with Pat Davidson – Part 2 – ESD & Mass.” All Things Strength and Wellness Podcast. November 5, 2016.
7. Bonhotal, Josh quoted in Tony Holler, “Basketball Advice from a Sprint Coach.”
8. Poliquin Group. “Eight Reasons Everyone Should Do Sprints” March 20, 2013.
9. Morris, Buddy (via @StuartMcMillan1). “Sprinting drives up your weights. Weights don’t necessarily drive up your sprinting.” 3:54 p.m. – November 11, 2016.
10. Nordström A, Nordström P, Ekstrand J. “Sports-related concussion increases the risk of subsequent injury by about 50% in elite male football players.” British Journal of Sports Medicine, July 31, 2014.
11. Kennedy, Kyle (via @kennedyk24). “The ability to create and close space is most important in most team sports.” 9:07 a.m. – October 26, 2017.

I’ve been coaching sprinters in track and field at Altoona Area High School in Pennsylvania for twenty years, and it’s led me on an exhausting yet extremely rewarding journey. Considering all the variables involved, training to increase speed is never easy. There’s enough information out there to make your head spin, especially for high school coaches who have such a wide variety of training ages and abilities.

One way we train our sprinters at Altoona is with resistance sprinting. Resistance sprinting, when used properly, is a specific strength and force development training tool for speed development. We’ve used resistance sprinting in a variety of ways including hill sprints, weighted sleds, and sprinting against the wind.

However, we prefer weighted pants. We’ve used weighted pants for more than fifteen years, and it’s become a big part of our overall sprint philosophy.

In my quest to improve sprint performance, I’ve tried just about every training program and speed gadget available. After I stopped looking for shortcuts and miracle pills, I realized the formula for success was rooted in sound training principals based on science. I also learned from the successes and failures of my coaching experiences. We call that the art and science of coaching.

Why Use Weighted Pants?

I first learned about the benefits of weighted pants when I read Innovations in Speed Development, a speed training manual written by Remi Korchemny for the USATF development program. The manual’s objective was to show how to increase speed using resistance and assistance training. I was lucky to come across the manual while at a clinic when I first started coaching. Among the many drills and programs in the manual, I was especially interested in his programming with weighted pants.

Korchemny wrote:

“Weight Pants are the most advanced, specific tool for speed and strength training. Weight pants directly stress the hip flexors (muscle group) which are responsible for leg mechanics. The stronger the hip flexors, the higher the knee lift. No other resistance can so specifically prepare the hip flexors. Weight pants also eccentrically stress the leg extensors at ground contact, as the athlete delivers a higher load over the landing leg during impact with the ground.”

Since better knee lift produces better front side mechanics which allows a greater rate of force application while sprinting, I figured why not give it a try. And since we started using weighted pants, we’ve had great success with our sprinters. Altoona holds one of the fastest 4 x 100m relay times in Pennsylvania state history at 41.29 seconds. We also hold one of the fastest 4 x 400m relay times in state history at 3:13.38.

Now before we go any further, I’m not saying that weighted pants are the Holy Grail of sprint training. What I can tell you is that I’ve witnessed huge improvements in front-side mechanics from the increased strength and power.

Programming with Weighted Pants

We start using weighted pants during our indoor track season. The ones we use only add 9 lbs of resistance to the legs (4.5 lbs. per leg). I know that doesn’t sound like much, but believe me, it’s plenty. We don’t use the weighted pants for acceleration training, but rather in our speed drills, some plyometrics, and flying sprints. We want to improve maximum velocity. And the thought of improving maximum velocity should excite any sprint coach.

We don’t add any specific resistance training until our athletes have practiced for four weeks. After the four weeks, we add specific resistance training. Our athletes have experienced the benefits of weighted pants and can’t wait to start resistance sprinting. In fact, they love it. Never ignore the psychological benefits of your training.

Video 1. This video shows our basic wicket drill (spacing 5ft). We introduce this first and progress to more difficult lengths. Emphasis is always on good front-side mechanics.

During a typical week, we use the weighted pants on a Monday. Our athletes are relaxed and well rested from the weekend (hopefully). We use our weighted pants several different ways and have had success with these methods. Our athletes wear them during our wicket drills to work on front-side mechanics and single-leg bounding to increase force production (see videos 1 and 2). The spacing is not as specific as what other coach’s use, but it’s served us well.

Video 2. We use weighted pants with our single-leg hops and progress to longer distances throughout the season, as appropriate.

Below you’ll see our 8-week progression. Remember these are only guidelines; you must adapt these drills to the ability level of your athletes and progress appropriately. If you’d like to use more specific wicket settings, I recommend you read the article “How To Improve Front-Side Mechanics and Force Production with the Wicket Drill.”

We also use weighted pants to run flying sprints (see video 3). We perform our flying 10’s and 20’s using build-ups. It reduces the fatigue and allows us to get quality repetitions. We always use our weighted pants using contrast methods, one repetition under normal conditions, 1-2 repetitions under loaded conditions, and 1-3 repetitions under normal conditions. The goal is always quality. We never run more than 300m of total volume. In fact, our normal workout is five total flying sprints; each one is 40 yards long (one without pants, two with pants, and two without pants).

Thanks to ideas from Coach Tony Holler, “Feed the Cats: Data-Driven Speed Training,” we recently purchased a timing system to record all our sprints accurately. We also plan on posting the athlete’s times on twitter and have a website up and running for our track program so our kids can monitor their progress. We want competition, and when everyone on the team can see the times for the day, the level of intensity rises.

Video 3. Flying 10 with weighted pants on the track. Note the acceleration before the maximal speed work.

Before Trying Weighted Pants in Your Training

There are many more ways to use weighted pants in your sprint training. I’ve discussed the ones that have been most successful for us over the years, and I do believe they’ve helped our sprinters run faster. This year, since we’ll be timing all flying sprints electronically, I’ll start to gather data, and we’ll see what the results show. Optimistically, I think it will show that weighted pants are a specific resistance tool to improve maximum velocity through better front-side mechanics and increased force production. Time will tell, and that’s what makes coaching so exhausting and extremely rewarding.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

• Mann, Ralph, Ph.D. (2008), The Mechanics of Sprinting and Hurdling.
• Korchemny, Remi, Innovations in Speed Development–Speed Training Manual Part 1 and 2; USATF Development Program.
• Dintiman, George and Ward, Bob (2011), Encyclopedia of Sports Speed.

“Sometimes, it is what you don’t play.”

Musicians throw this quote around quite a bit. I don’t know if it came from Miles Davis or Keith Richards or BB King, but it is a reference to what makes a musician great. Davis was talking about hitting just a few notes in his music, compared to many less-memorable jazz musicians who may play too many. Richards was talking about too many effects that would affect his tone.

And we all know BB King, one of the greatest guitarists of all time. Most of his solos are just five notes. Here they are. In most cases, people knew it was him in one note, hit just right.

AC/DC can groove on one note better than anyone. Or a true musical genius can put “simply too many notes” in music and still make them work, like Mozart (in a quote from the movie Amadeus). Eddie van Halen also found a way as well. But how often do you go back and listen to Joe Satriani, Steve Vai, or Dream Theater—all his equals? They are terrific musicians, but their music doesn’t seem to stay with you.

Why my musical rant? Recently, an athlete quit our track team. Of course, he didn’t come to me about it but talked to another coach instead. (See, I have the same problems as the rest of you .) He said he could do all of the stuff at home that we do at practice. I thought about what he said. While it may be true, the real magic is knowing when to do any given exercise and when not to. Like the above analogy, the good ones know what to play and when, while the others throw everything into the mix.

To start with, what is essential to your sport? What are you trying to do? Track? That is easy: run or jump. Football? Basketball? They are all sports of movement and explosion. So, more of the same, with agility added into the mix. Break that down further and start looking at movement patterns. Once an athlete has mastered the basic movement pattern, add some complexity.

Take, for example, the ankle rocker and foot complex. We start with basic exercises, like a simple single-leg shallow squat with the toes pulled back. Once the athlete reaches the appropriate depth, we may add uneven surfaces, closed eyes, or just one closed eye. At this point, we start moving with shuffle walks or stair climbs.

All of this will build into ankle rocker jumps and starts. While building on the advanced exercises, we add multidirectional movements, such as single-leg squats with the feet turned out but the knee not tracking the toes. The downfall of a fast straight-ahead sprinter may occur when they have a good range of motion with the knee over the toe, but they break down when they lack the range of motion in another direction.

My track team had a similar experience with workouts this year. Because my sprinters are football players, I had to keep some upper body lifting. But we mostly got rid of lower body lifting because our goal was to run fast.

There is a caveat to this statement. We are a small school with limited facilities. We used the kBox once a week. Because I only have two kBoxes and 30 guys, we kept it to just squats and RDLs to get people through. The rest of our workouts were flys or starts in short hallways. On the few relatively warm days early in the year (above 40 degrees), we went outside to run 150s or 23-second runs. Once the weather truly warmed up, we changed to perfect 40 workouts and 150s. The perfect 40 starts with small segments of a 40-yard dash and gradually expands. So we start with a block 10 and fly 10 and move out to 20s. Then a block 30 and fly 10, which of course eventually turns into a 40-yard dash.

Here are the results. These were all timed electronically with a touch pad and a beam. The average improvement is 0.20 over a 16-week period. I had similar results with a football team of 70 players which I will write about when we finish the cycle. These results aren’t from all of the fancy exercises that I know. I cut it down to the bare essentials of what I needed and stayed with it until I didn’t need it any more. Prime time runs are great, but why do them if the athlete is already displaying what the drill is intended to do? So, the results are from what you don’t do, which sometimes includes doing nothing.

I think this situation is layered into another group I am currently working with: 16-year-old traveling basketball players. This is a great group of guys who come once a week to work out with me. Of course, jumping, first-step quickness, and agility are their goals. As I do with everyone, we measure weekly.

But unlike most of my athletes, they aren’t going up at the same rate that I usually get. Their lack of improvement concerned me and I learned that they play at least once every day of the week. They practice with their high school team on Tuesday and Thursdays at 6 in the morning. Their evening schedule includes practice for their AAU team, individual coaching, and shoot-arounds.

Their weekend includes a travel schedule more grueling than NCAA or NBA teams. They play games at a number of locations, some of which require extensive driving. A few also play football, which adds still more time to their already busy sports schedules.

And let’s not forget about school. Throw in some AP tests. And at do we have in music? I think it would sound like some atonal, dissonant composer, like Edgard Varèse.

It is too much. Fatigued reps are worthless. Will they be better basketball players if they stay on this schedule, where they don’t improve athletically and play tired all of the time and in some cases get injured? Or, can they sacrifice some gassers, full-court runs, and a few games to concentrate on athletic development and ballhandling skills? Or an even different idea: work on visual training? If a player can’t see the floor, he can’t be nearly as effective. Regardless, these athletes need some rest. It is what they are not going to do that will make them better players/athletes.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

Strength and conditioning coaches rightfully take pride in trying to be on the cutting edge of sports science. This results in many coaches seeking out information about the latest and greatest training methods and tools. Often, an unfortunate side effect of this is that certain effective devices get discarded in the arms race to use the latest high-tech training modality. But as is the case with most things, the cream ultimately rises to the top and old tools become new again.

We see evidence of this with the re-emergence of the vertical climber, a device developed in the ’80s by a mechanical engineer. It became the cardio machine of choice for NBA players in recent years after LeBron James proclaimed his affinity for this device on social media.

One training tool that has largely been forgotten is the humble jump rope. Many people associate rope skipping with grade school children and not as a tool used by elite athletes. They’d probably be right outside combat sports, a sporting field that sometimes too stubbornly holds on to the “old school.” However, this is one of the situations where the adage, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” works perfectly. Jumping rope has been a staple in the warm-up routines of champions dating back to the Great Depression era and up until present day.

The Common Jump Rope: Underrated and Underappreciated

Jump ropes are revered for a number of reasons: They serve as great warm-up tools, they can be excellent devices for breaking a sweat when cutting weight, and most importantly, they can help transfer over a number of athletic benefits. Jump roping is a great way to improve footwork. In gyms, people commonly say jump ropes help with “being light on the feet”—this transfer to improved footwork comes from developing the ability to move off the balls of the feet (metatarsals) rhythmically. Improved footwork’s balance and coordination lends itself to improving speed by virtue of fighters being able to move more efficiently. In addition, because rope skipping is typically sustained for an extended period of time, it helps develop the cardiovascular system.

Unfortunately, jump ropes haven’t been a very popular tool among exercise scientists, which has resulted in very few available studies on their effectiveness. The limited number of studies, and ropes being essentially relegated to a niche sporting demographic, has robbed many athletes of the chance to utilize an effective tool. Despite this, any serious coach should at least consider the jump rope as part of a GPP (general preparatory phase) toolkit for their athletes.

There are a few things that a coach should consider when contemplating the acquisition of a new piece of equipment. Price should be taken into account, since it’s normal for some training devices to cost thousands of dollars. Jump ropes are some of the most cost-effective training pieces you can purchase, as it’s not difficult to find a quality rope for under $20.

Coaches should also consider the logistics of a training device; namely, how the item will fit in the facility space and the coordination of training sessions using this equipment. In this instance, ropes are advantageous because they’re extremely portable and require little space to use. The type of floor could be important, as a wooden surface is preferred over concrete, for example.

Of course, coaches are going to also want to know if the item works and see or read evidence of its efficacy. Jump ropes help develop some of the basic tenets of athleticism, namely conditioning, coordination, and the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). This makes them an excellent tool to help develop all-around athleticism.

Jump Rope Training and Conditioning

“Conditioning” is a term that covers a broad spectrum, as there’s aerobic and anaerobic conditioning, general and sport-specific, and a lot of gray areas in between. The most popular cardio tools over time have been devices that allow coaches to address as many of these types of conditions as possible. Anyone that has tried doing sprints in the wintertime on the type of treadmill found at most commercial gyms can tell you about the logistical headache that workout becomes. With rope skipping, athletes can transition seamlessly between aerobic and anaerobic work. And, while some of the fancier footwork drills on ropes are more for putting on a show, many of the basic moves transfer over well to general sports footwork conditioning.

A study on middle school male students undergoing a seven-week jump rope training program saw significant improvements in cardiovascular endurance and agility compared to the control group, while sprint performance had a very small improvement. ¹

Another research investigation on 40 men’s basketball players who underwent a training program that consisted of three days of rope jumping weekly had various performance measures taken pre/post-test. Rope training was shown to be effective on heart rate and anaerobic characteristics, whereas visual and auditory reaction times were unaffected.²

Improving Coordination with Rope Work

Coordination is an attribute implicitly linked with athleticism. It’s difficult to think of an athlete that excelled in their respective sport and didn’t demonstrate a high level of coordination and grace. Some coaches addressing coordination in the past used training tools like stability balls, agility ladders, and other polarizing devices.

The jump rope is simplistic in the way it helps develop coordination—the moment an athlete loses sync with their rhythm, the rope comes to a stop. In this sense, it’s a self-correcting tool for developing coordination, as the rope will give immediate feedback when the athlete’s jumping isn’t in sync. As a bonus, while many training devices tend to favor either the upper or lower body, jump ropes require total body coordination.

In track and field sports like hurdling, rhythm and coordination are crucial components as hurdlers maintain their pace by alternating between high speed running and leaping. In field sports like basketball and soccer, many of the greatest scorers have been elite ball handlers and this is due in part to amazing coordination skills.

A study conducted on preadolescent soccer players involved eight weeks of jump rope exercise training and measurement of performance analysis. The findings indicated that jump rope practice within regular soccer training enhanced general motor coordination and balance.³ Different research showed that a weighted rope training group got greater gains in coordination and eccentric endurance parameters for lower extremities in a kinetic chain.⁴

Developing Elastic Qualities and Neurological Power

The stretch-shortening cycle is a process that involves an eccentric contraction immediately followed by a concentric contraction. In the SSC, the concentric phase is more powerful than just a concentric-only motion. An example of this is seen when comparing a countermovement jump, which involves an eccentric component, to a squat jump.

The concept behind the SSC is that the stretch phase of the eccentric contraction maximally activates the muscle, for a more forceful concentric contraction. Think of it like a slingshot being pulled back. It’s also believed that the muscles and tendons store elastic energy, resulting in greater forces during an SSC. Many aspects of athleticism in sport rely on the SSC for a more powerful contraction. This manifests itself in greater sprinting speeds, more explosive power during throws and strikes, and bigger jumps.

The popularity of plyometrics in sports training programs is due to their ability to train the SSC. But an issue with plyometrics is that they can greatly tax athletes and, in certain instances, some athletes may not even be prepared to utilize them in their training programs. Using a jump rope can be an effective method to train the SSC, especially during the early phase of a program with younger athletes or those coming back from an injury. Rope skipping can be used to train the SSC prior to advancing to more stressful plyometrics. A bonus is that rope skipping is less stressful on the body and can be done for a greater period of time than traditional plyometrics, allowing for a greater training volume to be dedicated to SSC development.

In a study conducted on 76 young men, most of whom were involved in sport training two to three times weekly, with the RJ-index of rebound jump as criteria, the double under jump used about 70% of the SSC ability. It may also be an effective reinforcement of SSC ability.⁵

According to another investigation, collegiate students who used weighted ropes saw significant improvements in testing measures for the Sargent jump, bench press, and leg press.⁶

One study that looked at the effect jump rope warmups would have on national-level track and field athletes had results that suggested rope jumps were effective for traditional jumps. This was indicated by significant improvements in jumping distance compared to the traditional protocol, and significant increases in peak power and jump height for the CMJ and DJ and jump distance for five alternate leg bounds.⁷

Jump Rope Programming

As mentioned throughout this article, jump ropes are highly versatile tools that coaches and athletes can use in a variety of ways. Here are a few guidelines and ideas for their use to improve your general preparation training.

For anaerobic work, some possibilities include different timed sprint intervals with the rope. I do track work with athletes, measuring their times running various distances like the 100, 200, and 400, and one method for sprints that I utilize is having them skip for time at the same intensity that they’d use for running these same distances. For coaches who might lack access to a good track during certain times of the year because of weather, this can be an easier method to implement sprint-style training than attempting sprints on a treadmill.

Aerobic work can follow the typical parameters of slow steady-state work done at a moderate intensity. Fartlek type work is another effective way to get a mix of both conditioning systems in a workout. Often, an easy way to switch up the intensity is simply trying to perform certain trick-style jumps.

I work with combat sports athletes, and the conditioning requirements for these sports cover the spectrum of anaerobic and aerobic work with a lot of time spent in the middle portion of the two. This can be messy. One conditioning method I utilize combines anaerobic-based movements like intense combos on a heavy bag or pads, and steady-state jumping rope in between sets to replicate the conditioning needs the athlete would need for a round of fighting.

This type of training is broken down into a set working number for the round—typically three or five minutes, with one minute of rest in between rounds. I encourage the athletes to choose their individual work rate for the anaerobic portion of the three- to five-minute rounds, and use the rest of the time during the rounds to return their heartbeats to baseline levels when they’re skipping rope.

In the early stages of jump rope training, aerobic conditioning will take precedence because there is a large learning curve for sustaining a high pace of anaerobic work. One of the simplest strategies is to initially start out doing EMOM (every minute on the minute) jumps and try to sustain a rhythm until an athlete can jump for a longer period continuously.

Coordination Training Concepts

Coordination will innately develop with any form of rope training, as the workouts require athletes to be in sync while jumping or else the rope comes to a stop. There are also footwork progressions that can be done to further develop coordination, including jumping off one foot, alternating feet, double unders, and other more complex patterns. A progression from these footwork patterns can involve a coach (or the athletes themselves) calling out different patterns during a rope skipping training session and having the athlete alternate between patterns while maintaining a rhythm.

I’ve found practicing various rope footwork patterns to be more effective for improving coordination than agility ladder drills because the jump ropes require each step to be crisp or the rope will come whizzing to a stop. Another method for improving coordination with jump rope is to have athletes practice pacing the rope to the rhythm of music. Different songs have different BPM ranges and rhythms; by trying to keep up with varying rhythms, an athlete can improve their coordination at different paces.

Again, this is beneficial in the combat sports world because fighters all tend to have a fixed rhythm that they train/fight at. By adding some variance to it, the athlete’s overall coordination improves as they become accustomed to moving at different paces.

Training for a Better Bounce

The SSC relies on an eccentric contraction followed by an immediate concentric contraction; once again, this makes virtually any form of jump roping effective for developing this attribute. The forms with the highest transfer would be traditional two-footed hops, and double and triple unders. The latter two jump forms are more advanced, but achievable with consistent practice.

For SSC development, rope skipping can be effectively used as a warmup or stand-alone exercise. As a warm-up tool, I have athletes do basic two-footed jumps for a set amount of time or, if the plyometric exercises are going to be unilateral, they spend their time warming up with one-footed or alternating footed hops. As a standalone SSC exercise, rope skipping can be done by practicing double unders—which can be difficult for beginners—or simply by manipulating ankle stiffness on each hop (stiffer ankles for more of an SSC effect).

Incorporating Jump Ropes into Your Program

You can implement jump ropes as a standalone GPP tool, a warm-up tool, or even as a transitionary tool during the SPP portion of the program, as a way of implementing low-level/impact plyometric training to prime the SSC for more intensive stressors. I personally use them in warmups and frequently as part of conditioning workouts as the main cardio device. Because rope skipping will be a fairly novel exercise form for many athletes, there will be a learning phase that needs to take place. Initially, ropes should just be used during a warm-up or cool-down period rather than as a standalone workout if your athletes are unfamiliar with how to skip rope.

The reason is that if they can’t properly skip rope, aside from being unable to do any workouts to develop athletic skills, they won’t even be able to do any sustained type of workout. It’s difficult to jump rope with improper technique for any decent amount of time. Ropes are self-corrective, so typically, improper form or rhythm results in the rope coming to a stop. This is an area where ropes can be light years ahead of many other types of cardio because athletes can do things like running, for instance, with faulty mechanics for a long time. This results in overcompensation in areas of the body and, ultimately, injuries.

Additionally, ropes can be periodized, as there’s some variance between different ropes depending on goals. Lighter speed ropes, as the name implies, are excellent for developing footwork and using for interval-style training. When working on footwork drills for coordination or anaerobic training, these are my preferred ropes. Heavier ropes can be used to improve power and upper body endurance/strength. They can be excellent for power endurance type work, which is a very specific area that needs to be developed for combat athletes, as they’re expected to perform explosive movements for a sustained period of time.

Last Words of Advice

I’m not asking coaches or exercise scientists to abandon their preferred training tools, but there are enough promising attributes about jumping rope that it would be foolish not to consider it as a tool for athletic development. Athletes can achieve many of the basic attributes GPP training seeks to develop with a jump rope. Conditioning, coordination, and the ability to repeatedly produce rapid force development are all hallmark skillsets required to excel in virtually every sport.

Furthermore, from an investment standpoint, ropes are relatively inexpensive and versatile, and you can seamlessly plug them into multiple areas of a training program. This makes them a low-risk and potentially high-yield investment. While scientific studies citing their efficacy are sparse, there’s ample anecdotal evidence of their importance given their status as a staple in the training programs of combat athletes throughout the world.

Since you’re here…
…we have a small favor to ask. More people are reading SimpliFaster than ever, and each week we bring you compelling content from coaches, sport scientists, and physiotherapists who are devoted to building better athletes. Please take a moment to share the articles on social media, engage the authors with questions and comments below, and link to articles when appropriate if you have a blog or participate on forums of related topics. — SF

References

1. Partavi, S. (2013). “Effects of 7 Weeks of Rope-Jump Training on Cardiovascular Endurance, Speed, and Agility in Middle School Student Boys.” Sports Science, 6(2), 40-43.
2. Orhan, S. (2013). “The Effects of Rope Training on Heart Rate, Anaerobic Power and Reaction Time of the Basketball Players.” Life Science Journal, 10(4), 266-271.
3. Trecroci, A., Cavaggioni, L., Caccia, R., & Alberti, G. (2015). “Jump Rope Training: Balance and Motor Coordination in Preadolescent Soccer Players.” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine,14(4), 792-798.
4. Ozer, D., Duzgun, I., Baltaci, G., Karacan, S., & Colakoglu, F. (2011). “The effects of rope or weighted rope jump training on strength, coordination and proprioception in adolescent female volleyball players.” Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 51(2), 211-219.
5. Miyaguchi, K., Sugiura, H., & Demura, S. (2014). “Possibility of Stretch-Shortening Cycle Movement Training Using a Jump Rope.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(3), 700-705. doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182a0c9a5
6. Masterson, G. L., & Brown, S. P. (1993). “Effects of Weighted Rope Jump Training on Power Performance Tests in Collegians.” The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 7(2), 108. doi:10.1519/1533-4287(1993)007<0108:eowrjt>2.3.co;2
7. Makaruk, H. (2013). “Acute Effects of Rope Jumping Warm-Up on Power and Jumping Ability in Track and Field Athletes.” Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism, 20(3). doi:10.2478/pjst-2013-0018

On the first day on the job when building speed in the team setting, what we are about to do always interests me more than what the athletes have done in the past. Do I believe I am the way, the truth, and the light in the quest for speed? Of course not. Do I believe methods prescribed in the past have not produced the intended training effect? Perhaps. Do I believe I am here to rectify the situation and get these girls on the right track? Yes, I do.

What’s more, the girls see me as somewhat of a savior due to the maximal rest periods. “What?! A whole minute?!” The sign of relief (and joy) on their faces when I proclaim full recovery between reps never gets old.

Speed training in the team setting is one of the most challenging and rewarding experiences for today’s physical preparation coach. Couple the need for speed with a female population, and the satisfaction we reap increases even more. Girls’ soccer is a sport in desperate need of sound strength and speed programming.

Coaches and parents alike are afraid of high intensity, but cling to the “more work, less time” school of thought and the game itself, demanding that my system be sport-specific. This mantra is old and outdated. My goal is to be just the opposite, as sprinting is the most universal sport of all and the very foundation for several sports where getting there first is of outmost importance.

The Four T’s of Speed

In case you have been living under a rock for the greater part of the 21st century, Henk Kraaijenhof is a genius. I have stolen his “T-Factors for Speed” and modified them to meet the needs of my athletes.

1. Talent: Let’s face it—I cannot control the genetic predisposition of either girl A or girl B. Some girls were literally born for speed and explosion, while others were born to move at half the speed of smell. However, while I am unable to control the genetics of the girls I work with, I am in full control of how we play the hands dealt to them.
2. Training: This is where we, as speed and strength coaches, enter the fray. It is our duty, on a daily basis, to develop (or perhaps, expose) the talents of the athletes in front of us.
3. Temperature: My coaching practice is in West Michigan. “Luckily” for me, I may have days In December where it is 62 degrees and sunny. Conversely, there may be days in October where I cannot get out of my front door due to 3 feet of snow. Having indoor facilities at your disposal is paramount in this state. Why is temperature important for the girls? It matters because the higher the temperature, the higher the speed of metabolic processes in the muscle and of muscular contractions, due to increased activity of the relevant enzymes.
4. Technology: This category begins with a set of eyes and ends with a stopwatch. I know what to look for, and I use the stopwatch primarily for rest periods. No, I do not time the girls, especially not on Day 1. Speed is an embodied belief before it is an action. If the girls feel and believe they are faster, guess what? They probably are!

Team Speed Prioritization: Part-Whole Approach

I have had the most success adhering to the part-whole approach when coaching speed. I break down each component in order of the most important to the least important. After I address, implement, and coach each part, I find the buy-in to be exponential with the girls as they begin to see the big picture of what we will accomplish. That, paired with the exclamatory “Ohhh!” when the girls grasp the concept and are now ready to execute it, instantly makes the coach a great teacher and the athlete a great student.

The athletes I have worked with gravitate towards “checklists,” and why is that? Checklists can help an athlete not only learn faster, but also become unconsciously competent. This means that the system, checklist, or part-whole approach is ingrained in them to the point that they can become hind-brain dominant, where they know what to do and do not have to think about it. This is the type of brain dominance needed for high-speed activity!

My own personal part-whole approach is as follows:

1. Posture
2. Mach Drills
3. Arm Action
4. The Skill Itself

Posture

Posture dictates performance! I will say that again: posture dictates performance! As the speed coach, when I announce the first drill we will implement is one in which we will stand still, you can imagine the looks I receive from the girls. It is at this time, without fail, that I explain to them wall drills do not develop speed, but they develop optimal posture, and they need optimal posture to run fast. 1…2…3… “Ohhh!” I have said it before and I will say it again, this drill and the drills that follow may seem incredibly underwhelming, and that is OK. The most powerful things in the world are often quite simple.

The wall drill series we perform has four components:

1. Posture holds
2. Single exchange
3. Double exchange
4. Marching

Posture holds are phenomenal for the girls to feel what optimal posture is. In order for them to truly feel this, I literally walk them through proper setup as if they are a two-year-old. Truth be told, their training age is younger than that, so why wouldn’t I? The process is as follows: hands in line with shoulders, eyes straight ahead, feet shoulder width apart, a couple inches between the ground and the heel. Lastly, with girls, they are far more lordotic than their male counterparts, so instead of saying “hips forward,” I ask that they imagine a penny between their butt cheeks, and squeeze the penny. Voila!

From here, I cue them by saying “smash the calf,” and show how to hug their gastroc tight to their hamstring with whichever leg is forward. Notice I said, “forward,” and not “up.” If the focus is on the knee driving up, we will encourage overextension. Once set, the girls will hold anywhere between 20 and 30 seconds for one to two sets per leg. As everyone is holding, I may say, “Head to heel, strong as steel!” or “Stay long, stay big!” Again, great teacher, great students. This brutally simple drill sets the foundation for not only the drills to come, but acceleration as a whole.

Video 1. You can make timeless drills new again by adding fresh instructional concepts into groups. The key is to explain them with some athlete involvement, not just lecture while everyone is on the ground, bored.

As things begin to literally move more quickly while we progress to single and double exchanges, what happens? You guessed it: Posture is effectively trashed, and their spines resemble a question mark rather than a straight line. In my experience, you can correct this easily by telling a short story, more often than not. I tell the girls to imagine they are holding up the wall (or, in this case, the fence), not the other way around.

The tactile response to reach and push forward instantly elongates their spine once again. Here is where it gets tricky, as we are performing our single and double leg exchanges. I need to find the cue that works for the athlete, not the athlete that works for the cue given. If I see what I call “gooey” ankles and knees, I will cue the girls in question to “break the glass.” This emphasizes knee drive forward, which inevitably works for more than a handful of them.

For the others still struggling, I approach their side and ask if they see their own footprint behind them, to which they will nod in agreement. I then give praise and instruct them to stomp that footprint as hard as they can next time I exclaim the “Switch!” command, and Boom!, problem solved. On a side note, this is also an easy way to distinguish your “fight or flight” athletes by the cue that worked for them. We perform single and double exchanges for three to five reps per leg, for one to two sets.

Marching may seem incredibly rudimentary to the girls as, again, we are back to going slow rather than fast. It would do me no good to explain to the girls that rhythm and relaxation in this drill will allow them to become more fore brain dominant and focus on the application of the movement, so when we proceed to a hind brain activity (e.g., sprinting), we no longer have to think about the application. So, once again, it’s story time. “Ladies, this drill will help us think about it now, so we don’t have to when we run in a few minutes.” Wait for it… “Ohhh!”

The one thing I observe is relaxation. If I were build a wall from their hips down, and I could only watch their top half, it should appear as if they are doing nothing. That is the type of repose I am chasing. We perform marching for 20 seconds over two sets. 

Mach Drills

Now we start linking the chains together in our part-whole approach with Mach drills. If these drills are good enough for Lee Taft, Loren Landow, and Derek Hansen, I am sure they will suffice for my coaching practice. There are, again, four components in this series:

1. March
2. Skip
3. Pop-Float Skip
4. Running A’s

Marching has tremendous value in terms of carryover from the wall drills to a more dynamic and linear pattern. Obviously, I have taken away a source of feedback (the wall), so they must now begin to incorporate their arms. If you have ever watched a soccer player’s arms while he or she runs, saying that they resemble the one-legged air dancers outside car dealerships is not too far off.

I will attack the arms in the next series—one thing at a time. My priority with the marching component is to see how the girls negotiate the ground. Are they reaching, pulling, stomping, something out of this world? I have found that the best way to get the ground contact I am in search of, while still maintaining great posture, is to recycle the “calf smash” cue. Simple and effective. Perform these for two sets of 10 yards.

Do you want to get the type of turnover you are looking for with skips? “The floor is lava!” has been a staple in my cue toolbox for years, and it did not fail me with these girls, either. After the first rep (if it looked good), I ask if they have ever seen a truck pull, in which a rope is pulled vigorously. They will all nod and then I simply instruct them to also pull the rope.

The forward arm action that ensues is not clean whatsoever, but the smiles that come across their faces as they feel themselves literally gaining ground, or gliding forward as they skip, is a thing of beauty. We are—no pun intended—heading in the right direction. Perform these for two sets of 10-15 yards. Next!

Now we are starting to get into the good stuff! Nick Winkelman first introduced pop-float skips to me, and I appreciate all that I can gather from one simple drill. The pop-float skip provides value in that I am able to quickly distinguish between the fast-twitch and the slow-twitch athletes. How? We begin this drill in place. The athletes who bounce up high like kangaroos but quickly dissipate and become more familiar with the ground are my fast-twitch girls. Those who maintain the same, steady height for the duration before we move forward are my slow-twitch girls.

Aside from my crude athlete fiber type profiling, this drill also gets the girls to keep their hips high and their ground contact time low. I am sure I sound like a broken record as I shout, “Minimum time, maximum height!” Perform pop-float skips for two sets of 10 to 15 yards.

Video 2. Early in training, it’s important to create an effective way to communicate concepts that can become easily overcomplicated. Brief instructions with connected exercises or training are effective for youth training.

The first day of speed development in the team setting will almost always be an acceleration emphasis. However, if you have followed me for any period of time, you are well aware that I am a speed and power guy. Absolute speed is my second language, so you’d best believe we are going to work on something in that realm, even if some consider it a “hack.” Enter Running A’s.

Running A’s (high knees) are a wonderful way to begin to incorporate absolute speed qualities, as we keep the girls’ hips extremely high, creating stiffness with minimal ground contact time and building a fairly high “RPM” with the substantial number of cycles completed over 10-15 yards. For example, a 40-yard dash may take an athlete anywhere between 17 and 20 strides, but having the girls perform Running A’s for 10-15 may double that number!

Aside from beginning to flirt with absolute speed on an acceleration day, the more practical reason is that we are beginning to condition the tissue to fire more violently and efficiently while promoting blood flow. Check, check, check. Two sets of 10-15 yards should suffice. Now let’s fix those arms. 

Arms

Arm action is last, but certainly not least, on my list of priorities. Why do arms play such a big role in acceleration? First, there is a neuromechanical component that we cannot ignore: The motor signal will originate in the girls’ brains and their arms are in closer proximity to the brain than their legs. This implies that the signal will reach the arms before the legs; therefore, arm action will undoubtedly play a crucial role in acceleration.

In our stationary arm action drill, it is of the utmost importance that the girls have minimal arm bend, as if it were an oar passing through water. This enforces the backside movement to facilitate complete extension through the hips during ground contact. Now, don’t get me wrong, I am a front-side fanatic, but there cannot be front-side without backside mechanics. It would be like having a heart without a brain; both are required.

You would be safe assuming the first few reps are absolute garbage, and that is OK. We are going to do it slow, do it right, and then do it fast. Cues used here may be “Split your arms!” or “Rip and punch!” as we perform this series for two sets of five to six reps per arm.

The Importance of Technique with Females

Before we converge all the drills into the skill itself, I feel it prudent to explain why technique with female athletes may be even more important than when working with the opposite sex. Females possess lordotic spines, so you can forget about “neutral position” when they are running fast. Furthermore, this will limit knee position and extension, which will result in much shorter steps.

Not knowing this fact could be detrimental to those you work with. With that said, females are capable of running fast with poor technique. However, bad technique manifests itself through bad habits and excessive training volumes, which could lead to injury. Coaches need to correct this and then implement good technique, which will save their athletes energy between quick bursts in games, and ultimately lead to longevity. 

The Skill

At this point, 30 to 45 minutes have passed and the girls are getting antsy. This excites me because I know they are now ready to run. My go-to for this population is the rolling crouch start, which I believe I stole from Lee Taft. This form of acceleration suits this population well, as they are all strong. Are they strong enough? Hell, no. But the majority are quad-dominant, they are pushers, and they are all comfortable in the front end.

Knowing that, why be stubborn? Train what is trainable, take what the defense gives you! This is the phase in which adequate strength levels can make a huge difference. I take it a step further by having them in the crouch position. Now the girls literally have to muscle and push their way out of the position. I want them to feel that; this stoic position provides that tactile response.

My favorite external cue for the crouch start? “Push yourself away from the line.” After that, I will only say, “Push!” When I have finally cut them loose, one cue is all I use, no more. Why? The use of one cue will result in an 85% success rate, more than one will drastically drop to a 30% rate of success, and more than two? Send me an e-mail and let me know how it works out for you. Best of luck. With the crouch start, all I ask of them is to give me five hard steps—less is more.

It is critical that we, as coaches, do not rush the acceleration phase. This phase sets up the girls for a high level of absolute speed, as no high level of absolute speed is achievable with a suboptimal acceleration phase. Those who can push the ground the hardest will go forward the fastest. What’s more, the better the athlete, the longer the acceleration phase, and the longer the acceleration phase, the higher her absolute speed will be. Sixty yards, total, of acceleration work on Day 1 is plenty. Divide it up however you see fit.

Non-Competitive to Competitive

The first couple of reps will be riddled with errors and drenched with coaching in a non-competitive environment (the girls’ only opposition is the ground). It is amazing to see the improvements made between reps one and two, as they grasp the concept of pushing. Their smiles say it all. The last three or four reps will be in a competitive environment, with the classic “fox and hound” exercise. The concept is simple: one girl chases while the other flees.

Now, other speed experts may suggest leaving the competitive environment alone until several weeks into training. I disagree. If I want to get several weeks of training that is worth a damn, the girls need to have fun. Remember, the horse that loves to run will beat the horse that feels compelled to, every single time.

The primary goal of the fox and hound exercise is, of course, to have fun, but there is a technical aspect to it as well. The girl who is the hound must have great front side arm mechanics if she is going to make a successful tag, while the fox cannot afford a technical error if she is to escape. The laughter that ensues makes this aspect of training enjoyable for both athlete and coach. 

Fast Brain = Fast Athlete

Dan Pfaff is notorious for claiming, “Acceleration is a skill.” Buddy Morris took this a step further, saying: “If it is a skill, then it needs to be addressed daily.” I try to venture into the realm of deliberate practice with the girls, focusing their attention on a specific skill—i.e., acceleration, crouch starts, wall drills, etc.—and I provide feedback so they can then make the adjustment(s) needed to be the most productive and achieve success.

Why do we perform ­so little during speed sessions? Well, for one, our level of success skyrockets when our focus narrows. Second, scientists and other experts much smarter than I suggest the answer lies in myelin. Myelin, for those coaches unaware, is a layer of fat tissue that grows around neurons, as if it were an insulator that allows cells to fire faster and more efficiently. What I am trying to say is, these girls will get better at these skills as they develop more myelin around the relevant neurons, which will allow their circuits to fire without effort.

When they focus intently on the skill, we force the relevant circuitry to fire again and again, in isolation. This will increase the layers of myelin around their neurons, which will then cement the skill of acceleration. To be great at acceleration is to be well myelinated.

Speed Session Rules

Each speed session needs to have rules. This is the coach’s own “governor,” if you will; it keeps us in check. My speed session rules are as follows:

• Simple -> Complex: Complexity is a symptom of confusion. Just because it is simple does not mean it is easy. Stay towards the left side of the continuum as long as you can.
• Slow -> Fast: Activate the forebrain first. Let them be slow and analytical with great focus and intent in order to indoctrinate the task at hand. Do it slow, do it right, then do it fast.
• Less = More: Never train your athlete(s) to exhaustion; leave them wanting more.
• Rest Consists of Nothing: Endorse boredom; let them be free of distraction. Therefore, when it is time to “go,” their level of focus and intent is second to none.

Making the Lessons I learned Work for You

The largest difference between speed development in the team setting and speed development in the private sector is training > talent. In the team setting, you are not getting the best athlete in the area. She may be present in the group, but your attention must solely be on training speed, rather than propelling natural selection.

This is what ignites my passion in the world of speed and power. I want the team consisting of girls that train less than two times a week and have never seen a speed coach or a gym before, rather than the girls who train more than five times a week and lift weights. Obtaining higher levels of speed and power is one of the most difficult tasks faced by today’s coach. It is not easy: You must know what you are doing, what to look for, and how to relate to the athletes (especially females).

This challenge stimulates me and it is what I love to do, no matter the sport. My passion is speed and power, and while I do not necessarily need more powerful athletes, I have to develop them.

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Strength and Conditioning has a strange and complicated relationship with pressing. After being told how important the movement is, we increasingly see our options limited due to apparent risks the movement brings. In the past, most programs would have included the bench press and military press religiously.

Outside of contact sports like rugby and American football, the bench movement is now treated as a pathology that can only cause harm. Certain popular powerlifting programs and dubious aspects of gym culture have conflated both horizontal and vertical presses.

Another issue is well-meaning coaches who mix protocols for general populations and specific athlete populations (for example, shoulder injury-prone groups like baseball players and cricketers) and then expand these to all athlete populations. Finally, the majority of research on overhead pressing and its relationship with the shoulder is rather negative.

While contested movements such as the squat, deadlift, and clean and jerk have plenty of research exploring their injury potential as well as their overwhelming positives, there is little performance data available for the overhead press and the push press. This means that trainers who lean strongly toward physical therapy have much information to quote when going against an ever-dwindling population of pragmatic coaches who still use the movement.

Defending the Right to Press Vertically

In this article, I focus mainly on bilateral overhead pressing; we find ourselves in a situation where the barbell overhead press has been disparaged nearly into extinction. Hilariously pointed out in a skit by Martin Rooney, this movement seemed to disappear from weight rooms and programming suggestions the world over. To a certain extent, this is because strength and conditioning is partially informed and led by strength sports. This relationship is largely symbiotic but also potentially perilous when we paint biases toward certain expressions of strength.

Video 1. Simple pressing is timeless, but it does require proper teaching and, more importantly, progressions. Not everyone can press vertically, but we shouldn’t remove the exercise from our inventory due to the very small group of athletes who can’t do the movement.

Inappropriate strength-based movements are often expropriated to athletes who focus on lifting maximum load instead of inducing maximum positive stress. This results in pattern overload, impingements, and injury risk. Coaches, in turn, kick back against this strength “convention” in an effort to reduce injuries that should only present in strength sport populations.

Coaches take movements that work well in injured and at-risk populations and use them as blanket pressing options for all populations. So now we see athletes doing anaemically loaded variations in an attempt to include “some kind of” pressing since it constitutes one of the major movement patterns. This may be fine for athletes who don’t need high-quality pressing actions as part of the sporting movement expression. But collision sports athletes need to stabilize the shoulder and extend the arm with high levels of force production.

Some practitioners utterly disregard the bench press as completely redundant for any athlete other than powerlifters, gym enthusiasts, and football players looking for good bench combine scores.

The overhead press had a bumpier journey. Influential figures suggested with gusto that it was potentially harmful to certain populations and outright said it should be abandoned for most athletes. We live in an age where coaches will often make withering proclamations about not doing x, y, or z–possibly to grab attention. While the sentiment is not wrong for certain populations, the zeitgeist swung away from overhead pressing, proclaiming it was problematic for all athletes. Don’t even dare mention the behind-the-neck press.

Bringing the Overhead Press Back from Near-Extinction

The overhead press was once part of the weightlifting trifecta and was later dumped due to the dubiousness of its performance with extreme loads. Mark Rippetoe has spent much time pushing against the trend away from overhead pressing and increasingly to derivative exercises. He places blame squarely on physical therapists and strength coaches who have over-medicalized movement.

Overhead pressing causes a thorough need for the system to be organized fully–toe to head–to accomplish the movement properly. This systemic stress offers several benefits to athletic populations, and it would be foolish just to discard it.

Jonathan Mike states that, “This complex, multi-joint movement has potential for heavy loading, along with the incorporation of multiple muscle groups, across multiple planes of movement.” And further that, “Nearly all groups of populations would benefit from some improvement in upper body strength and stabilization from the use of a multi-plane, multi-joint exercise that can be loaded to coincide with any strength, power, or hypertrophic goal an athlete may have. The versatility of the SBOHP also allows its use in almost any stage of an athlete’s annual periodization cycle.”

In the same NSCA article, Mike also explores the movement’s execution, which differs among organizations. The Olympic lifting community has never really abandoned the movement, and they happen to be an absolute goldmine of content for pressing variations.

Rippetoe often argues that it’s the lack of overhead pressing in early exercise selection that makes the movement problematic. By the time athletes approach heavy pressing, they’ve acquired restrictions and immobility issues that stop them from performing it properly. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.

Why is pressing force development vertically and horizontally so important?

There’s a strong relationship between upper body strength and limb speed, particularly in heavy pressing horizontally and vertically. This is crucial for sports that require high limb speeds, including boxing, baseball, golf, and handball. Limb force production is also crucial for the lower velocities that occur in combat and collision sports. Coaches of rugby, wrestling, judo, and other collision sports–where players must forcefully press away from opponents in several directions–should monitor strength development in both actions.

Soft tissue issues, though, are a concern in collision and non-collision sports, and we have a plethora of exercise options thanks to proactive coaches. But athletes are disserved by languishing on bottoms-up kettlebell presses, landmine pressing, and half kneeling presses. We see a scenario where stability is valued above force production, which is a perfectly legitimate relationship.

If the athlete, however, never gets beyond learning to stabilize due to minimal dosing, potential force production will never develop. As with any exercise variant, once we’ve established stability and competence, we must pursue the intensity and stimulus brought by heavy pressing. The key is to find constructive press variations that allow for intensity.

I outline below six bilateral pressing methods we use in our programming. Implementation comes early in our athletes’ training cycles, and we encourage our youth athletes to press with a dowel in warm-up and training. By establishing the pattern early, we don’t have to undo negative postural habits or work to overcome mobility restrictions built up via preferential pressing habits. The main focus is the ability to press out from disadvantaged positions and decelerating control. We load intensively and use the movement to assist power development from head to toe.

The Overhead Press: A Staple and Foundation

The standard overhead press confers most of its benefits–isometric work from the lower body and full engagement from trunk and extremities–with high loads, which made this movement a popular staple in the past. Excellent explanations of the movement exist all over the web, including an exploratory article in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning by Kroell and Mike (see References), Dr. Yessis’ website, and explanatory videos by press advocate Mark Rippetoe.

Yessis goes further into sporting application: “The military press is great for development of the upper and lower portions of the middle of the back. The combination of joint actions involved in the military press is used in a multitude of sports, as for example, in the clean and jerk and snatch in weightlifting and in various movements in gymnastics….The actions and muscle development are also important when throwing different punches in boxing, in the shot-put, and in handstand push-offs in gymnastics.”

Push Pressing Like a Pro

I extensively use an option with push press that allows for lower body and upper body sequencing and improves strength and power in both. “The mechanical demand of the push press is comparable with the jump squat and could provide a time-efficient combination of lower-body power and upper body and trunk strength training.” This comes from the shallow, violent redirection of energy into the barbell by using a dip. It effectively provides a 1/6-1/8 jump squat of sorts into a press.

We know that improving lower limb speed in running athletes is probably best done by performing jump squats. But for athletes who want to improve limb speed and stability in the upper and lower body, the push press is very useful. The transfer from foot to hand is very helpful for striking athletes–think of stiff-arming opponents in collision sports, striking, and framing limbs to create space. It’s the final extension that helps collision athletes; the press out is desirable versus, say, the jerk which should lack a press out.

Heavy push pressing allows us to approach heavy upper body work in an auto-regulatory fashion. When monitoring my athletes, I often notice that poor push press performance indicates high levels of CNS fatigue leading to failure during the push or peripheral fatigue causing failure to complete the lockout.

I often program push pressing as a 90%+ upper body option for doubles, in contrast to horizontal pressing on other training days. I have greater completion levels and responsible autoregulation in a group setting versus, for example, bench pressing with 90%+ loading.

Behind-the-Neck Press: An Option for Some

The behind-the-neck press (BNP) is just about extinct in most weight rooms. I still see Olympic weightlifters perform numerous variations of this lift with the likes of Dimitry Klokov promoting wide grip variations from a dead start. I’m not suggesting anyone start there.

During my early lifting career, I was introduced to the lift as important for healthy shoulders. I was later told, while still a young athlete, never to perform it because it “was bad for your shoulders.” I’ve since used it regularly with my athletes. The BNP is a viable corrective exercise when loaded lightly, and a great shoulder strength promoter when pattern and mobility are solid with decent loading.

Video 2. Not every athlete can press, and far fewer athletes should press behind the neck. Regardless, those who can should not be stopped by those who overreact or the population who can’t do the exercise.

It’s precisely the effect on the rhomboids, infraspinatus, teres minor, and supraspinatus that allows for better scapular retraction and dynamic stabilization. If an athlete cannot perform the BNP or has pain doing so, this often indicates mobility limitations, often at the shoulder or T-spine. In this sense, we can use the BNP in an assessment. While I’m not a fan of movement screens, I do like to use some exercises to highlight restrictions. Starting out with a broomstick, band, or lightly loaded barbell and progressing from there can work wonders.

Eccentric Overhead Pressing

I rarely see force acceptance trained on the overhead press. Because overhead pressing is largely considered a concentric activity, we often see athletes eccentrically drop the weight rapidly to use the stretch reflex at the bottom of the movement. When I was a young athlete, a few bodybuilders showed me eccentric presses, and I abandoned them in favor of press/jerk variations as I learned more about Olympic lifting.

I began to consider it seriously as I became exposed to triphasic training. Eccentric overhead pressing requires high levels of shoulder and trunk stability. I’ve decided we should perform more shoulder work eccentrically to aid injury prevention.

Video 3. A slight cheat with the legs can quickly make a heavy press into an eccentric variation if instructed properly. Those who can push press will know how to deliver just the right amount of assistance concentrically.

The lateral and medial deltoids respond well to high tension levels, and the eccentric overhead press is a great way to build intensity without the high loads some worry about. If the focus is solely on upper body stabilization, we can perform it while seated. Eccentric push presses are a formidable supramaximal eccentric option but, obviously, we must apply this movement with prudence. The exercise lets us merge this explosive lower body option with eccentric upper body work, a worthwhile time-efficient option.

There’s also the eccentric BNP which will definitely break the rules. I use it to encourage strong overhead stabilization and scapular depression by recruiting the upper back, traps, and posterior shoulders. It’s not dissimilar to a back squat. Worked up overtime, athletes can perform these movements fairly heavy despite being unconventional.

Much like the hand supported split squat and the Romanian deadlift, we can apply maximum strength outside standard movement paradigms across different movement contexts and still confer benefits.

Trap Bar or Jammer Overhead Press

Trapbar and Jammer presses are increasingly popular as a pressing variation. It’s my bilateral pressing option for those who have persistent shoulder trouble with standard overhand grip. By going neutral, they can keep pressing with a highly loadable movement. There’s also no need to move the head out of the way with the trap bar press. The neutral position takes pressure off the shoulders, wrists, and elbows.

Video 4. The Trap Bar or Hex Bar offers two unique benefits, a neutral grip and removing the head clearance needs of the lifter. In addition to traditional loading, accommodating resistance is possible with the specialized bar.

Obviously, the width, size, and handle types on your trap bar will need some testing if you’ve never tried it before. I suggest using the low handles since the high handles will turn the movement into a glorified bottoms-up press.

Jammer arms are more rare, but they’re a tool that’s lurked in the weight room for decades. Manufacturers are now finding creative ways to make them compact, versatile, and more ergonomic than, for example, a double landmine press. The lever arm changes the nature of the movement, and we can perform push presses, banded, and eccentric presses with ease.

Oscillatory Pressing

Slightly more outlandish is the oscillatory press. By adding rapid acceleration and deceleration at the bottom of the movement for timed periods or a desired number of oscillations, we create rapid dynamic stabilization into an explosive press out. The condensed range of motion leads to increased tissue tolerance which, for shoulders, can be extremely useful. Oscillatory sets are short because they’re very taxing on the stabilizing structures in the shoulder and upper back. The oscillation should be 2-3 inches. After the oscillation, press out as fast as possible and pull the bar back down as quickly as possible.

Video 5. At first glance, oscillatory pressing may look like a variation without function, but the exercise is an invaluable option. Focusing on the transition of the rep will yield dividends in peaking down the road, but only when the athlete is ready.

I encourage those who are unfamiliar with the exercise to start the movement from the top to emphasize the idea of pulling the bar down. I use this variation with any of the movement options discussed.

Development and Sequencing

Sequencing these movements follows a simple pattern of GPP/Hypertrophy, high-force low-velocity movements and then peaking with high-velocity low-force movements. The fight over the press’s application is between pragmatic strength coaches versus coaches with physical therapy leanings. The context under which the employ their ethos is important to the debate.

Many who discourage overhead pressing and pressing in general seem to be those who deal with athletic populations that commonly have issues with this particular movement. The blanket statements these coaches espouse are always problematic. Understandably, mobility limitations and issues throughout the upper limbs make this a movement many avoid–the idea of accelerating high loads overhead worries some coaches.

Others may turn their noses up because it doesn’t fit popular convention, and the desire to be seen doing the right things can be powerful. Sometimes I wonder how different things would be if the front squat were a strength sport lift, much like if the overhead press had never been tossed out of the Olympics.

References

• Fair J. “The tragic history of the military press in Olympic and world championship competition, 1928–1972.” J Sports Hist 28(3): 345–374, 2001.
• Vernillo G, Temesi J, Martin M, Millet GY (2017). “Mechanisms of Fatigue and Recovery in Upper versus Lower Limbs in Men.”
• Kroell J & Mike J (2017). “Exploring the Standing Barbell Overhead Press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
• Van Dyke M. “OC Training and Partials.”